ISRN Geriatrics

Volume 2013 (2013), Article ID 564342, 9 pages

http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/564342

Research Article

Assessment of Malnutrition in Community Chinese Elderly: A Hidden Problem in a Developed Society

Josette Sin-yee Chor,¹ Jason Leung,² Sian Griffiths,¹ and Ping-chung Leung²

¹Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Room 202, School of Public Health Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, Hong Kong

²Jockey Club Centre for Osteoporosis Care and Control, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Room 318, School of Public Health Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, Hong Kong

Received 8 August 2012; Accepted 29 August 2012

Academic Editors: D. Chan and O. Weinreb

Copyright © 2013 Josette Sin-yee Chor et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract.

Background. Malnutrition can lead to chronic disease especially in vulnerable population. This study is to explore the extent of the malnutrition problem in community Chinese elderly and its associating factors in Hong Kong. Method. This is a cross-sectional study using structured interview with 7-day food frequency questionnaires. 1960 men and 1954 women aged 65 or above were recruited from the community. Results. Less than half of the participants fulfilled the recommended intake level of the others. Less than 10% of participants met the daily requirement of fibre, Calcium, Vitamin D, Iodine, and Copper. 22.32% of male participants and 6.21% of female participants have cholesterol intake exceeding the recommended upper level. 41.19% men and 28.99% women exceeded the upper level of fat percentage of total energy. Educational level was demonstrated to have a consistent positive association with the adequate intake in most nutrients. Single or divorced marital status is a risk factor in over-intake of saturated fatty acid in men and under-intake in Zinc and meat in women. Conclusion. Our study has shown the serious malnutrition problem in a wide range of nutrients in community Chinese elderly in Hong Kong.

1. Introduction

Nutrition is vital for healthy ageing. Inappropriate diet is associated with different illnesses such as cancer, stroke, ischaemic heart disease, diabetic mellitus, and osteoporosis irrespective of the sex and ethnicity [1]. Previous studies have shown that the Mediterranean diet helped to reduce risk of cancer, which suggested that increasing fruit and vegetable consumption and decreasing meat intake would have a protective effect against cancer [2]. Another study also showed a strong protective effect of fibre, Vitamin C, and carotene as well as positive association between dietary fat intake and breast cancer amongst the Chinese [3]. A systematic review showed that diets with nonhydrogenated unsaturated fat, as the major forms of fat intake, whole grain, as the major form of carbohydrate along with high intake of fruits and vegetables, as well as adequate omega-3 fatty acid had a significant protection effect against cardiovascular diseases [4]. Another study in China showed that hyperlipidemia was positively associated with total energy, total fat, and saturated fatty acid intake and negatively associated with fibre intake [5]. A previous local study in Hong Kong found reduced mortality with increased fish uptake [6]. Inappropriate nutrient intake is not only confined to developing countries, but is also common amongst elderly in high income countries [7]. It is a global health issue closely related to socioeconomic transition and social disparity [7, 8]. Both over- and undernutrition can exist at the same time in the same country among different socioeconomic classes [7, 8]. This leads to differentials in mortality and morbidity in a population especially in the vulnerable groups such as elderly.

Although the importance of an appropriate diet is well documented, the prevalence of poor nutrition including a detailed account of specific nutrient intake is not well described in Chinese elderly populations. Appropriate health education and policies cannot be formulated without this important information. Such studies as have been carried out have found variable results. For example, a small survey done in Singapore showed that elderly do not conform to healthy eating guidelines for the major food categories [9]. The only study assessing the protein intake of elderly people in a lower socioeconomic group in Hong Kong was done 20 years ago [10].

Thus, this study was to assess the health need in elderly people by documenting the extent of the malnutrition problem in a community of Chinese elderly and study the associated factors in Hong Kong.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design and Participants

Two thousand men and two thousand women aged 65 or above were invited from the community by self-referral in health talks and posting recruitment notice in community centers for the elderly and housing estates in Hong Kong. All participants are Chinese and community dwelling. They were recruited and followed up for 5 years with questionnaires and health checks including blood taking, blood pressure monitoring, cognitive function assessment, and bone density measurement.

2.2. Measurements

Sociodemographics including age, educational level, marital status, and medical history were recorded by structured questionnaires administered by trained staff. Socioeconomic status was measured by a self-rated 10-point ladder scale. Their body mass index (BMI) was measured.

Dietary intake was assessed by a 7-day food frequency questionnaire with mean nutrients per day calculated using the table derived from McCance and Widdowson and the Chinese Medical Science Institute [11, 12]. The food frequency questionnaire consisted of seven categories of food items including bread/pasta/rice, vegetables, fruits, meat, beverages, dimsum/snacks, soups, and oil/salt/sauce. Food items in each category were chosen based on the Chinese diet in the Hong Kong population. Methods of cooking were also recorded. Since a previous study had found that variation between seasons was not a significant factor, we conducted interviews throughout the year regardless of the season [13]. Nutrients and food items of interest are Vitamin A, Vitamin B1, B2, and B3, Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Calcium, Phosphorus, Iron, Zinc, Iodine, Copper, protein, carbohydrate, fruit, vegetable, meat, fibre, cholesterol, fat percentage of total energy, saturated fatty acid, monosaturated fatty acid and polyunsaturated fatty acid, and total energy.

The subjects were asked to fill in the food items consumed, portion size, and number of times consumed per day, per week, or per year for less frequently consumed items. Portion size was explained to the participants by pictures and photographs. The amount of oil used in cooking is estimated by the formula used in another local study depending on the method of cooking: 0.2 tablespoon (tbsp) for steaming fish or stir frying half a portion of vegetables; 1 tbsp for stir frying one portion of meat or one portion of vegetables [14]. Validity of this food frequency questionnaire was validated by comparing the 24-hour intake of total energy, lipid, sodium, and potassium, with estimated values of total energy expenditure, plasma lipid level, and 24-hour urinary sodium, and potassium outputs. There were no significant differences observed in energy intake but there was an underestimation of sodium and potassium. The lipid intake is highly associated with the plasma lipid level [14].

2.3. Statistical Analysis

The mean dietary intake of each nutrient was calculated and compared with the intake level recommended by Department of Health, Hong Kong, and we have used the United States recommended levels when local standards were not available. The percentage of participants under or exceeding the recommended level was calculated. The adjusted odds ratio by multiple logistic regression was used to identify the nutritional risk factor of various sociodemographics and BMI of our subjects in different nutrients.

3. Results

One thousand nine hundred and sixty men and one thousand nine hundred and fifty four women aged 65 or above were recruited from the community. Their mean BMI was not significantly different from the Hong Kong population average in this age group (23 kg/m²). The characteristics were shown in Table 1. The mean nutrient intakes of the subjects were shown in Tables 2 and 3. Most participants met the recommended requirement of Vitamin A; Vitamin C, Phosphorus, Iron, protein, and carbohydrate. There was no significant difference in men and women. A small percentage of participants exceeded the upper recommended level, most commonly for Vitamin A for which 3.3% of men and 2.3% of women exceeded the upper intake level of 3000 μg.

Table 1: Characteristics of subjects.

Variable
Mean (SD)/Frequency (%)
value*

Female
Male

Age
72.58 (5.36)
72.39 (5.01)
0.2541

Social economic ladder of Hong Kong
4.64 (1.92)
4.45 (1.87)
0.0020

Education level

<0.0001

    No education
753 (37.65%)
103 (5.15%)

    Primary or below
903 (45.15%)
1104 (55.20%)

    Secondary or above
344 (17.20%)
793 (39.65%)

Single, divorced, or widowed
931 (46.55%)
240 (12.00%)
<0.0001

Living alone
341 (17.05%)
92 (4.60%)
<0.0001

Housewife
206 (10.30%)
—

Weight
54.52 (8.50)
62.44 (9.38)
<0.0001

Height
150.92 (5.32)
163.08 (5.72)
<0.0001

BMI

0.1081

    Underweight (<18.5)
100 (5.00%)
115 (5.75%)

    Normal (18.5–<23)
711 (35.55%)
760 (38.00%)

    Overweight (23)
1189 (59.45%)
1125 (56.25%)

value of -test for continuous and for categorical variables.

Table 2: Median (IQR) nutrient intake of the male participants.

Nutrient per day
Median (IQR)
Recommended intakes
Percentage meeting the recommendation
Tolerable upper intake levels
Percentage over the upper intake

Vitamin A (g)
929.47 (649.92, 1,322.95)
900a
52.25%
3000a
3.30%

Vitamin B1 (mg)
0.87 (0.67, 1.17)
1.2b
22.77%

Vitamin B2 (mg)
0.94 (0.70, 1.27)
1.3b
23.62%

Vitamin B3/niacin (mg)
15.05 (11.18, 22.89)
16b
45.10%
35b
12.66%

Vitamin C (mg)
140.10 (98.73, 195.44)
90c
79.58%
2000c
0%

Vitamin D (g)
0.19 (0.07, 0.41)
10d
0%
50d
0%

Calcium (mg)
575.80 (411.98, 779.35)
1200d
4.40%
2500d
0%

Phosphorous (mg)
1,058.23 (806.95, 1,424.99)
700d
84.38%
3000d
0.30%

Iron (mg)
14.56 (11.12, 19.19)
8a
92.94%
45a
0.35%

Zinc (mg)
9.62 (7.47, 11.96)
11a
33.73%
40a
0%

Iodine (g)
0.29 (0.10, 1.06)
150a
0.10%
1100a
0%

Copper (g)
0.12 (0.06, 0.23)
900a
0%
10000a
0%

Total energy (Kcal)
2,037.84 (1,675.09, 2,457.42)
2330/2100e
36.39%

Protein (g)
80.97 (62.24, 106.03)
56f
82.48%

Protein (g)/body weight (kg)
1.32 (1.00, 1.74)
0.8f
88.59%

Protein % of total energy
16.14 (13.91, 18.74)

35f
0%

Carbohydrate (g)
274.43 (225.50, 342.72)
130f
98.55%

Fruit (g)
231.62 (154.67, 344.45)
300g
34.08%

Vegetable (g)
208.36 (143.70, 305.36)
240g
40.84%

Meat (g)
145.97 (99.00, 215.27)
160g
49.85%

Fibre (g)
8.61 (6.21, 12.00)
16g
9.91%

Cholesterol (mg)
200.54 (135.01, 288.74)

300h
22.32%

Fat % of total energy
28.63 (24.62, 32.95)

30h
41.19%

Saturated fatty acid % of total energy
6.71 (5.51, 8.02)

10h
5.11%

Monounsaturated fatty acid % of total energy
10.56 (8.87, 12.47)

12h
29.78%

Polyunsaturated fatty acid % of total energy
6.78 (5.60, 8.38)

6 h
66.07%

aDietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc, Jan. 9, 2001.

bDietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline, Jun. 12, 2000.

cDietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids, Aug. 3, 2000.

dDietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride, Jan. 1, 1997.

e2330 for age 65–74, 2100 for age over 74, dietary reference values for food, energy, and nutrients for united kingdom, 1991.

fDietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fibre, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids, sep. 5, 2002.

Note: The reports for references a–f may be accessed via http://www.nap.edu/. Copyright 2002 by the National Academies. All rights reserved.

gEat Smart! Follow the Food Pyramid!, Central Health Education Unit of the Department of Health, Hong Kong, 2005.

hFats and oils in human nutrition, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Health Organization, Rome, 19–26 Oct. 1993.

Table 3: Median (IQR) nutrient intakes in female participants.

Nutrient per day
Median (IQR)
Recommended intakes
Percentage meeting the recommendation
Tolerable upper intake levels
Percentage over the upper intake

Vitamin A (μg)
923.56 (669.18, 1,266.28)
700a
71.66%
3000a
2.30%

Vitamin B1 (mg)
0.77 (0.58, 1.01)
1.1b
17.78%

Vitamin B2 (mg)
0.82 (0.60, 1.11)
1.1b
26.14%

Vitamin B3/niacin (mg)
10.48 (8.08, 14.73)
14b
27.74%
35b
6.01%

Vitamin C (mg)
140.84 (101.17, 187.45)
75c
88.03%
2000c
0%

Vitamin D (μg)
0.19 (0.08, 0.38)
10d
0%
50d
0%

Calcium (mg)
527.55 (376.39, 713.50)
1200d
2.70%
2500d
0%

Phosphorous (mg)
886.05 (683.21, 1,167.16)
700d
73.01%
3000d
0.10%

Iron (mg)
11.66 (9.19, 15.30)
8a
84.58%
45a
0.30%

Zinc (mg)
7.38 (5.91, 9.27)
8a
40.31%
40a
0%

Iodine (μg)
0.36 (0.10, 5.53)
150a
0%
1100a
0%

Copper (μg)
0.07 (0.04, 0.14)
900a
0%
10000a
0%

Total energy (Kcal)
1,504.03 (1,262.64, 1,843.71)
1900/1810e
23.08%

Protein (g)
60.50 (46.44, 77.45)
46f
75.81%

Protein (g)/ body weight (kg)
1.12 (0.85, 1.47)
0.8f
79.07%

Protein % of total energy
15.97 (13.72, 18.41)

35f
0.15%

Carbohydrate (g)
216.63 (180.31, 261.49)
130f
95.29%

Fruit (g)
212.89 (148.19, 315.74)
300g
28.14%

Vegetable (g)
207.42 (147.10, 288.72)
240g
37.56%

Meat (g)
104.36 (69.53, 152.35)
160g
27.69%

Fibre (g)
8.01 (5.89, 10.58)
16g
6.11%

Cholesterol (mg)
133.71 (89.15, 190.70)

300h
6.21%

Fat % of total energy
26.75 (23.50, 30.74)

30h
28.99%

Saturated fatty acid % of total energy
5.92 (4.96, 7.02)

10h
2.40%

Monounsaturated fatty acid % of total energy
9.92 (8.40, 11.89)

12h
23.69%

Polyunsaturated fatty acid % of total energy
6.96 (5.78, 8.52)

6h
70.11%

aDietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc, Jan 9, 2001.

bDietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline, Jun 12, 2000.

cDietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids, Aug 3, 2000.

dDietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride, Jan 1, 1997.

e1900 for age 65–74, 1810 for age over 74, Dietary Reference Values for Food, Energy and Nutrients for United Kingdom, 1991.

fDietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids, Sep 5, 2002.

Note: The reports for references a–f may be accessed via http://www.nap.edu/. Copyright 2002 by The National Academies. All rights reserved.

gEat Smart! Follow the Food Pyramid!, Central Health Education Unit of the Department of Health, Hong Kong, 2005.

hFats and oils in human nutrition, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Health Organization Rome, 19–26 October 1993.

Less than half of the participants fulfilled the recommended intake level of the other nutrients. The most serious ones were Vitamin D, Iodine, and Copper for which none of the participants met the recommended daily intake. Moreover, less than 5% of subjects have taken enough Calcium and less than 10% of participants met the daily requirement of fibre. Less than half of the participants met the recommended daily intake of the following nutrients: Vitamin B1, Vitamin B2, Vitamin B3, Zinc, fruit, vegetable, and meat. These findings show that in most cases, more elderly women are undernourished than men.

Vitamin B3 intake showed the greatest variation, and despite less than half of the participants reaching the recommended level, up to 10% of subjects exceeded the upper recommended level (12.66% in men and 6.01% in women).

Fat intake was also suboptimal. Hong Kong elderly over-consumed fat. The situation in men is worse than in women. 22.32% of male participants and 6.21% of female participants had cholesterol intakes exceeding the recommended upper level. 41.19% men and 28.99% women exceeded the upper level of fat as a percentage of total energy. The picture is better for saturated fatty acid as a percentage of total energy. Only 5.11% of men and 2.4% of women exceeded the upper recommended level.

Logistic regression analysis of socioeconomic factors such as age, socioeconomic status, educational level, marital status, and BMI found that only educational level had a consistently positive association with adequate intake of most nutrients (Table 4). Single or divorced marital status is a risk factor in over-intake of saturated fatty acid of total energy in men. It is also a risk factor of under-intake in zinc and meat in women (Table 5). There is no association between BMI, age, living and socioeconomic status, and nutritional status. Therefore, body weight cannot reflect whether the subject is having the appropriate diet or not. The undernutrition was more serious when age advanced in both men and women (Tables 6 and 7).

Table 4: Crude odds ratio and adjusted odds ratio of educational level in meeting nutrient recommendation.

Educational level
Female
Male

Crude odds ratio (95% CI)
Adjusted by logistic regression (95% CI)
Crude odds ratio (95% CI)
Adjusted by logistic regression (95% CI)

Vitamin B1

    No education
1
1
1
1

    Primary or below
1.23 (0.95, 1.61)
1.20 (0.89, 1.60)
1.80 (0.97, 3.35)
1.67 (0.90, 3.13)

    Secondary or     above
2.02 (1.47, 2.77)
1.93 (1.36, 2.75)
3.12 (1.68, 5.81)
2.84 (1.51, 5.32)

Vitamin B2

    No education
1
1
1
1

    Primary or below
1.64 (1.29, 2.07)
1.51 (1.17, 1.95)
1.35 (0.78, 2.36)
1.24 (0.71, 2.18)

    Secondary or     above
2.91 (2.19, 3.87)
2.65 (1.94, 3.62)
2.31 (1.33, 4.02)
2.08 (1.18, 3.65)

Vitamin B3

    No education
1
1
1
1

    Primary or below
1.31 (1.04, 1.64)
1.19 (0.93, 1.52)
1.15 (0.76, 1.75)
1.12 (0.73, 1.74)

    Secondary or     above
2.40 (1.82, 3.16)
2.13 (1.57, 2.89)
1.92 (1.26, 2.94)
1.74 (1.12, 2.71)

Calcium

    No education
1
1
1
1

    Primary or below
2.08 (1.03, 4.23)
1.70 (0.82, 3.51)
1.85 (0.44, 7.77)
1.61 (0.38, 6.81)

    Secondary or     above
3.30 (1.52, 7.19)
2.87 (1.26, 6.50)
3.18 (0.76, 13.31)
2.93 (0.70, 12.36)

Zinc

    No education
1
1
1
1

    Primary or below
1.41 (1.15, 1.72)
1.21 (0.97, 1.50)
1.14 (0.73, 1.78)
1.09 (0.69, 1.73)

    Secondary or     above
2.50 (1.92, 3.25)
1.98 (1.49, 2.64)
1.60 (1.02, 2.51)
1.45 (0.91, 2.32)

Fruit

    No education
1
1
1
1

    Primary or below
1.17 (0.94, 1.46)
1.13 (0.89, 1.44)
1.81 (1.11, 2.94)
1.65 (1.00, 2.70)

    Secondary or     above
1.91 (1.45, 2.51)
1.84 (1.36, 2.49)
2.20 (1.34, 3.60)
1.97 (1.19, 3.26)

Vegetable

    No education
1
1
1
1

    Primary or below
1.07 (0.87, 1.31)
0.96 (0.77, 1.19)
1.97 (1.24, 3.12)
1.79 (1.12, 2.87)

    Secondary or     above
1.28 (0.98, 1.66)
1.04 (0.78, 1.39)
2.35 (1.47, 3.74)
2.15 (1.33, 3.46)

Meat

    No education
1
1
1
1

    Primary or below
1.16 (0.93, 1.45)
1.04 (0.82, 1.33)
1.11 (0.74, 1.66)
1.05 (0.69, 1.60)

    Secondary or     above
1.55 (1.17, 2.04)
1.26 (0.93, 1.72)
1.46 (0.97, 2.21)
1.31 (0.85, 2.02)

Fibre

    No education
1
1
1
1

    Primary or below
1.72 (1.10, 2.69)
1.89 (1.14, 3.11)
1.14 (0.54, 2.43)
1.10 (0.52, 2.35)

    Secondary or     above
2.48 (1.48, 4.15)
2.46 (1.37, 4.42)
1.58 (0.74, 3.35)
1.46 (0.68, 3.13)

Table 5: Marital status as a risk factor in overintake of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acid of total energy and underintake of zinc and meat.

Variable
Female
Male

Crude odds ratio (95% CI)
Adjusted by logistic regression (95% CI)
Crude odds ratio (95% CI)
Adjusted by logistic regression (95% CI)

Meeting nutrient recommendation of Zinc

    Single/divorced/widowed
0.64 (0.53, 0.76)
0.72 (0.58, 0.88)
0.68 (0.51, 0.93)
0.73 (0.53, 1.00)

Meeting nutrient recommendation of meat

    Single/divorced/widowed
0.58 (0.48, 0.71)
0.57 (0.45, 0.72)
0.87 (0.66, 1.13)
0.94 (0.71, 1.25)

Over-intake of saturated fatty acid in total energy

    Single/divorced/widowed
0.89 (0.50, 1.58)
0.84 (0.43, 1.65)
1.86 (1.12, 3.09)
1.91 (1.11, 3.31)

Table 6: Median/frequency (%) among different age groups of the male participants.

Median/frequency (%)
P value

65–69
70–74
75 or above

664
708
628

Education level

<.0001

    No education
27 (4.07%)
43 (6.07%)
33 (5.25%)

    Primary or below
316 (47.59%)
401 (56.64%)
387 (61.62%)

    Secondary or above
321 (48.34%)
264 (37.29%)
208 (33.12%)

Single, divorced, or widowed
47 (7.08%)
68 (9.6%)
125 (19.9%)
<.0001

Living alone
21 (3.16%)
26 (3.67%)
45 (7.17%)
0.0009

Weight
63.80
62.80
61.00
<.0001

Height
163.95
162.95
162.30
<.0001

BMI
23.56
23.52
23.15
0.0009

Nutrient per day

    Vitamin A (g)
954.72
929.71
912.03
0.4011

    Vitamin B1 (mg)
0.88
0.89
0.86
0.1167

    Vitamin B2 (mg)
0.96
0.93
0.91
0.1474

    Vitamin B3/niacin (mg)
15.96
15.28
13.92
<.0001

    Vitamin C (mg)
139.12
141.43
138.84
0.9536

    Vitamin D (g)
0.23
0.19
0.17
0.0455

    Calcium (mg)
578.16
575.74
573.91
0.1867

    Phosphorous (mg)
1,079.64
1,072.06
1,018.04
0.0032

    Iron (mg)
15.04
14.58
14.00
0.0028

    Zinc (mg)
9.86
9.63
9.28
0.0193

    Iodine (g)
0.34
0.30
0.25
0.0147

    Copper (g)
0.13
0.12
0.10
<.0001

    Total energy (Kcal)
2,065.75
2,050.85
1,997.49
0.0021

    Protein (g)
84.12
81.66
78.17
0.0024

    Protein (g)/body weight (kg)
1.35
1.33
1.29
0.2816

    Protein % of total energy
16.50
16.07
15.89
0.0423

    Carbohydrate (g)
280.08
272.05
269.04
0.0534

    Fruit (g)
231.27
230.60
234.04
0.831

    Vegetable (g)
215.32
210.49
195.84
0.0741

    Meat (g)
151.83
147.12
139.55
0.0142

    Fibre (g)
8.68
8.72
8.27
0.3217

    Cholesterol (mg)
207.60
202.11
195.64
0.02

    Fat % of total energy
28.60
28.85
28.33
0.638

    Saturated fatty acid % of total energy
6.69
6.82
6.62
0.3391

    Monounsaturated fatty acid % of total energy
10.48
10.62
10.53
0.6339

    Polyunsaturated fatty acid % of total energy
6.77
6.84
6.75
0.9904

Table 7: Median/frequency (%) among different age groups of the female participants.

Median/frequency (%)
P value

65–69
70–74
75 or above

669
665
666

Education level

<.0001

    No education
189 (28.25%)
259 (38.95%)
305 (45.8%)

    Primary or below
334 (49.93%)
290 (43.61%)
279 (41.89%)

    Secondary or above
146 (21.82%)
116 (17.44%)
82 (12.31%)

Single, divorced, or widowed
187 (27.95%)
273 (41.05%)
471 (70.72%)
<.0001

Living alone
66 (9.87%)
92 (13.83%)
183 (27.48%)
<.0001

Housewife
48 (7.17%)
60 (9.02%)
98 (14.71%)
<.0001

Weight
55.00
54.90
52.35
<.0001

Height
152.40
151.00
149.70
<.0001

BMI
23.61
24.15
23.34
<.0001

Nutrient per day

    Vitamin A (g)
952.94
931.52
869.95
0.0049

    Vitamin B1 (mg)
0.81
0.78
0.73
0.0898

    Vitamin B2 (mg)
0.86
0.84
0.78
0.0013

    Vitamin B3/niacin (mg)
11.26
10.48
10.05
<.0001

    Vitamin C (mg)
143.18
140.12
139.28
0.5009

    Vitamin D (g)
0.16
0.18
0.24
0.0113

    Calcium (mg)
545.03
543.82
495.06
0.0021

    Phosphorous (mg)
937.45
900.81
842.84
0.0003

    Iron (mg)
12.16
11.62
11.09
0.0001

    Zinc (mg)
7.60
7.54
6.99
0.0003

    Iodine (g)
0.36
0.39
0.32
0.1767

    Copper (g)
0.09
0.07
0.06
<.0001

    Total energy (Kcal)
1,550.90
1,497.26
1,463.53
0.0002

    Protein (g)
63.30
60.91
56.74
<.0001

    Protein (g)/body weight (kg)
1.15
1.13
1.08
0.1801

    Protein % of total energy
16.18
16.01
15.64
0.0023

    Carbohydrate (g)
221.86
217.75
213.27
0.0471

    Fruit (g)
225.07
205.63
210.87
0.0897

    Vegetable (g)
220.46
211.91
192.34
<.0001

    Meat (g)
108.15
107.55
97.20
0.0004

    Fibre (g)
8.32
8.02
7.56
0.0042

    Cholesterol (mg)
137.10
136.95
128.93
0.0058

    Fat % of total energy
27.09
27.16
26.10
0.1161

    Saturated fatty acid % of total energy
5.91
6.04
5.82
0.3437

    Monounsaturated fatty acid % of total energy
10.03
9.84
9.76
0.0499

    Polyunsaturated fatty acid % of total energy
6.90
6.91
7.04
0.6163

4. Discussion

Our results showed that malnutrition exists amongst the elderly in Hong Kong Chinese elderly. They have a low intake of fibre, Calcium, and Vitamin D. On the other hand, they have an overconsumption of fat and cholesterol. Their diets are not appropriate for their needs, possibly contributing to the burden of chronic disease and/or poor control of existing illnesses such as osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease, and high fat diet-related cancer. This is reflected by the ongoing upward trend in age standardized cancer rate in breast cancer and male colorectal cancer which are most closely contributed by inappropriate dietary intake [15]. The International Osteoporosis Foundation also pointed out that the hip fracture rate in Hong Kong has increased by 300% from the 1960s to the 1990s and now costs more than 17 million USD a year in acute hospital care [16]. The coronary heart disease has also risen from 38.6% in 1972 to 59.6% in 1992 [17]. It is also now the second commonest cause of death in Hong Kong. Comparison with another local study done 20 years ago showed that the protein intake has greatly improved in both men and women reflecting the increasing affluence of our society [10].

Our study showed that people with lower education level, single/divorced/widowed, or male gender are at higher nutritional risk. These findings were compatible with another study of the Chinese population in Singapore [9]. However, there is no increased risk with advanced age and or with lower socioeconomic level which is at variance with other studies, possibly reflecting the greater socioeconomic homogeneity in Hong Kong. Another study that showed BMI has a positive association with the nutritional status. However, in our study, there is no association. This is perhaps because the energy from fat is quite high in our subjects and therefore the BMI cannot be used as a proxy measurement of overall nutrition.

Factors contributing to the nutritional imbalance are complex. A previous study has demonstrated that Chinese elderly have poor nutritional knowledge and they held strong traditional Chinese or food-texture-related dietary restriction attitudes [18]. This study also showed elderly of younger age and higher educational level had better nutrition knowledge. Therefore, health and nutrition liturgy is very important in strategies for promoting health in the elderly. We did not ask the source of food. However, in Chinese culture, elderly people usually cook and eat at home. Therefore, a health promotion programme targeted at healthy home or healthy recipe can help solving this problem in elderly.

Our study has its own limitations. The use of food frequency questionnaires has the merit of alleviating the memory burden amongst the elderly and can be used to assess long-term diet and is less influenced by daily variation. The tool has also been validated and used in nutrition studies in Chinese populations. However, it cannot cover all the individualized items of food and therefore does not capture some extreme diet range. Our study recruitment was not done by random sampling although we tried stratifying our subjects to cover a wider range of age and their BMIs are no different from the mean values of Hong Kong elderly. Our subjects are all ambulatory and therefore they cannot represent the elderly who live in institutions. Moreover, recruitment by self-referral usually will attract more health conscious and healthier subjects.

Our study has shown that there are nutritional dietary imbalances including under- and overconsumption of a wide range of nutrients in Hong Kong elderly. Diets have become westernized and rates of noncommunicable diseases increased. Our study has identified the health need of malnutrition problem in the elderly, and it also revealed that this problem existed across different socioeconomic classes. Education has played much influence on this health problem and therefore health promotion strategy should be adjusted according to the different educational levels. Health services should be targeted at promoting better diets and tackling barriers to healthier diet decisions.

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.

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