This study assessed factors that affect awareness of health implications of agrochemical use and its effects on maize production in Ejura-Sekyedumase Municipality of Ashanti Region, Ghana. One hundred and fifty-four (154) maize farmers were randomly sampled from the municipality. The study used awareness indicators to estimate an index representing farmers’ awareness levels of health implications of agrochemical use. An ordered logit compliment with multivariate linear regression model was used to identify the drivers of farmers’ awareness level of health implications of agrochemical use. Also, a multivariate linear regression model was used to analyze the effects of health implications of agrochemical use on maize output. On average, the respondents have the moderate awareness level of health implications of agrochemical use (0.578). The awareness level was significantly explained by education, the number of children in school, ownership of TV/radio, experience in agrochemicals use, and farm size. The multivariate linear regression results showed that awareness levels of health implications of agrochemical use increase maize output. It is therefore recommended that interventions aimed at increasing farmers’ awareness levels of health implications of agrochemicals use should focus on educating farmers through interactive radio discussion and training sessions on the field and incorporate safety use of agrochemical in our educational curriculum.
Agriculture is one of the principal sectors of Ghana’s economy. The country has for the past few years experienced continuous decline in GDP contribution from the sector, but it still remains the foundation on which the country’s economy rests. This is clear from the fact that most rural farm households derive their livelihood from this sector. The sector contributed 22.0% against 28.6% from the industrial sector and 49.5% from the services sector to the GDP of the country [
Agrochemical is any chemical that is used in agricultural production to improve productivity and control of pest and diseases [
According to Horna et al. [
Many farmers do not have adequate knowledge and information on the health hazards associated with handling and use of pesticides [
The ability to apply the right quantity is dependent on awareness of the health implications and the physiological effect on crop output and the quality of the produce. Agrochemicals affect maize crops directly. Overdose and much exposure of maize plant to agrochemicals cause scorches, yellowing, necrosis of the foliage, and distortions of the leaves. In this instance, a higher rate of application has the potency to affect maize output level. Residues of agrochemicals sometimes remain in maize edible parts which have a health impact on the consumer.
Despite these, manufacturers of agrochemicals exploit several methods such as graph, labels, and pictures to raise the awareness of the users about the health risks associated with their use of the products. Government agencies (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Standard Board and Environmental Protection Agency) and Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) have not relented on their efforts to creating farmers’ awareness of health implications of agrochemical use. Meanwhile, the achievable targets have not been reached. This means that there are certain socioeconomic and demographic factors that influence the farmer’s awareness level of health implications of agrochemical use. The study, therefore, seeks to assess the factors that influence the farmers’ awareness of health implications of agrochemical use as well as the effect of the awareness on maize output. The study is expected to contribute significantly to information and knowledge on the factors that influence maize farmers’ awareness levels of health implications of agrochemical use. The study will also provide information to policy-makers and agricultural extension officers to come out with effective training programs for farmers. It is, therefore, important to know the limiting factors to farmers’ awareness of health risks associated with agrochemical use. The research outcome can, therefore, be used by the Ministry of Agriculture, agrochemical companies, and other agencies to raise awareness of the need for safe handling and use of agrochemical by farmers through the identification of the drivers that influences farmers’ level of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use.
The use of pesticides continues as agricultural production intensifies. However, agricultural production is fraught with abuse, misuse, and overuse of these chemicals [
According to Lichtenberg and Zilberman [
The study used both descriptive and quantitative methods in analyzing the sampled data. Descriptive statistics such as percentages were used while ordered logit model was used to identify factors influencing farmers’ awareness level of health implications of agrochemical use. To estimate the effect of awareness level on farm output, multiple linear regression model was used where awareness level is an additional explanatory variable measuring the effect on output.
In measuring the levels of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use (for simplicity, let us use the symbol
Farmers’ score indicating the extent of awareness is specified in the equation [
Extent of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use.
The extent of awareness | Ranges of indices | Ordered indicators of |
---|---|---|
Low level of awareness | | |
Moderate level of awareness | | |
High level of awareness | | |
In the literature of econometric modeling, many researchers have used binary choice models to analyze the determinants of technology adoption, perception, and awareness of certain issues. Prominent among these binary choice models are linear probability model (LPM), binary probit, and binary logit models. The probit and logit models are improvement of the LPM but there are no significant differences between the results obtained from the two especially when the sample size is small [
Definitions and measurements of variables included in the models.
Variables | Description | Measurements | Expected sign |
---|---|---|---|
| Labor | Man-days | + |
FS | Farm size | Acres | + |
| Pesticides | Liters | +/− |
| Level of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use | 1 = low level of awareness | + |
Ag | Age of respondents | Years | − |
Ms | Marital status | 1 = married, 0 = otherwise | +/− |
HHS | Household size | Number | + |
Edu | Years of schooling | Years | + |
Ext | Number of agric. extension officers’ visits in years | Number | + |
Cre | Credit access | 1 = access, 0 = otherwise | + |
NCS | Number of children in school | Number | + |
Inc | Previous year’s farm income | Ghana Cedis | + |
FBO | Membership of farmer-based-organization | 1 = member, 0 = otherwise | + |
OTVR | Ownership of television and radio | 1 = yes, 0 = otherwise | + |
From the theoretical ordered logit model, the empirical ordered logit model that was used to analyze the determinants of level of health implications of agrochemical use is given by
The multiple linear regression model was used to analyze how output is affected by level of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use. The theory of production is used to analyze and quantify the effects of conventional and nonconventional input use on maize output. Output is a function of conventional inputs such as labor, capital, fertilizer, and pesticides. Meanwhile, unconventional inputs such as level of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use can affect the quantity and quality of maize produced. Quantity of maize output is used in most studies to the neglect of quality of the produce. In this study, the maize output refers to the quantity and quality of maize output. Quality here refers to the quantity of maize devoid of chaff and other pests infected grains.
The empirical multiple regression model for analyzing the effect of level of health implications of agrochemical use on the maize output is given by
The study was conducted in Ejura-Sekyedumase Municipality in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. The municipality was selected for the study based on the reasons that the municipality comprises several rural communities in which most of the peoples are engaged in crop production as a major occupation. Maize cultivation is dominant compared with other crops with high use of agrochemicals. Ejura-Sekyedumase Municipality was curved out of the former Sekyere and Offinso District in 1988 with the legislative instrument PNDC LI 1400, 1988 [
The study followed a multistage sampling in the selection of the respondents. Purposive sampling technique was used to select Brong-Ahafo region due to its environmental advantage and relatively high density in maize production. The municipality was randomly selected among the many maize producing districts or municipality in the region. We randomly selected four communities from the list of maize producing communities within the municipality. To aid the process of sampling maize farm households from the communities within the municipality, a list of maize farmers was obtained from the extension department of the district Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) office. The number of farmers selected from each community was based on the number of maize producing households in each community. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 154 maize farmers from the four communities and used for the study. Enumerators were well trained to administer a well-structured questionnaire through face-to-face interviews. The face-to-face interviews were used due to its appropriateness in clarifying questions in the questionnaires.
Table
Summary statistics of continuous variables.
Variables | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | Std. deviation |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age | 20 | 76 | 40.5 | 13.242 |
Years of education | 0 | 15 | 4.156 | 4.802 |
Household size | 1 | 16 | 6 | 3.162 |
Number of extension visits | 0 | 4 | 0.416 | 0.729 |
Number of children in school | 0 | 8 | 3 | 2 |
Annual income (GH¢) | 480 | 13800 | | 2822 |
Farm size (acres) | 1 | 23 | 4.909 | 3.076 |
Quantity pesticides (lit/acre) | 2 | 7 | 4.837 | 1.146 |
Quantity of fertilizer (kg/acre) | 0 | 150 | 85.6 | 0.629 |
Labor (man-days) | 8 | 21 | 13.24 | 2.656 |
Source: field survey (2015).
On the average, the number of extension visits was 0.416 times per year, which indicates poor extension services in the study area. Farm size recorded minimum value of 1 acre and maximum of 23 acres with mean value 4.909 acres. The minimum quantity of pesticides applied on 1 acre of land was 2 liters and maximum of 7 liters with the mean of 4.8 liters. Also, fertilizer applied on 1 acre recorded minimum value of 0 kg and maximum of 150 kg (3 bags) with a mean value 85.6 kg.
The empirical results from the study indicate that most of the farmers (66.2%) do not read the labels on the containers/packages of agrochemicals, while 33.8% read the labels before use (see Table
Farmers response to indicators of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use.
Indicators of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use | Response | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|
Reading of labels on the package/container | Yes | 33.8 |
No | 66.2 | |
Seeking help from others, if cannot read | Yes | 25.3 |
No | 74.7 | |
Awareness of agrochemical toxicity | Yes | 86.4 |
No | 13.6 | |
Understanding of the level of toxicity, reading the labels on the label | Yes | 31 |
No | 69 | |
Eating, drinking, or smoking while spraying or applying agrochemicals | Yes | 32.5 |
No | 67.5 | |
Washing of hands with soap right after spraying or applying agrochemicals | Yes | 83.1 |
No | 16.9 | |
Keeping of bottles/packages of agrochemicals along with food items | Yes | 46.8 |
No | 53.2 | |
Washing of the sprayer in the pond/canal/river | Yes | 13 |
No | 87 | |
Determination of wind direction | Yes | 77.3 |
No | 22.7 | |
Facing of the wind direction when spraying | Yes | 74 |
No | 26 | |
Application of recommended dosage | Yes | 52.6 |
No | 47.4 | |
Application of two or more pesticides type together | Yes | 68.3 |
No | 31.7 | |
Can overdose of agrochemicals affect maize stand? | Yes | 62.1 |
No | 37.9 | |
Use of agrochemicals to store foodstuffs for consumption or animals feeding | Yes | 34.2 |
No | 65.8 | |
Use of personal protective gears during agrochemical spraying or application | Yes | 26 |
No | 74 |
Source: field survey (2015).
In the area of reuse of empty containers of agrochemicals, 53.2% said they dispose of them while 46.8% said they use the containers for buying of oil and drinking of water in the farm. Out of 154 respondents, 13% of the responded indicated that they wash the spraying machine in water bodies like rivers and streams. From the results, 77.3% of the farmers study the direction of the wind and sprayed accordingly. Additionally, 52.6% of the respondents adhere to the recommended dosage while 47.4% do not. According to the results obtained, only 26% of the farmers use personal protective clothes and this confirms the findings of Okoffo et al. [
There is a direct correlation between farmers’ agrochemicals use practices, the attitude of farmers, and their awareness level of its health effect on them and the environment at large. Farmers’ awareness levels were calculated from their responses on agrochemical application practices and health awareness indicators. The awareness levels were ordered on a scale of 1 (0–49% score), 2 (50–69% score), and 3 (above 70% score) indicating a low, medium, and high level of awareness which is also a measure of the intensity of awareness. The results indicated that 35.6% had a low level of awareness, 51.4% were moderately aware, and only 13% of the respondents had a high level of awareness (Figure
Level of awareness and frequency of respondents. Source: author’s computations from field survey, 2015.
An ordered logit model was used to identify the factors that affect maize farmers’ level of awareness of health implications of agrochemicals
Marginal effects of ordered logit model and the individual awareness levels.
Variables | Ordered logit model | Low level | Moderate level | High level | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Marginal effects | | Marginal effects | | Marginal effects | | Marginal effects | | |
Fs | −0.327 | 0.010 | 0.068 | 0.012 | −0.051 | 0.022 | −0.017 | 0.023 |
Sex | 0.663 | 0.180 | −0.149 | 0.203 | 0.119 | 0.232 | 0.029 | 0.132 |
Edu | 0.113 | 0.002 | 0.028 | 0.002 | 0.021 | 0.007 | 0.007 | 0.001 |
Exp | −0.064 | 0.032 | 0.013 | 0.032 | −0.001 | 0.045 | −0.003 | 0.048 |
HHs | −0.074 | 0.348 | 0.015 | 0.349 | −0.015 | 0.354 | −0.004 | 0.358 |
Ext | 0.116 | 0.678 | 0.024 | 0.677 | 0.018 | 0.678 | 0.006 | 0.679 |
NCS | 0.341 | 0.004 | −0.071 | 0.004 | 0.053 | 0.001 | 0.018 | 0.014 |
Inc | 0.000 | 0.024 | −0.001 | 0.027 | 0.001 | 0.04 | 0.001 | 0.001 |
FBO | 0.043 | 0.912 | −0.009 | 0.912 | 0.007 | 0.912 | 0.002 | 0.913 |
OTVR | 1.422 | 0.000 | −0.312 | 0.001 | 0.245 | 0.002 | 0.066 | 0.004 |
Number of observations = 154; log-likelihood = −112.3836; pseudo
LR chi2 = 73.51; prob > chi2 = 0.00;
The socioeconomic factors that were included in the model are sex, household size, education, farmer group membership, the number of children in school, ownership of TV/radio, experience in maize farming, income, farm size, and extension visits. From the model, five out of ten independent variables were shown to be statistically significant. The results showed that education, the number of children in school, and ownership of TV/radio positively influence farmers’ level of awareness of health implications of agrochemicals use. Experience in agrochemicals use and farm size have a negative significant effect on farmers’ level of awareness of health implications of agrochemicals use. The negative effects of farming experience on awareness of health hazards of agrochemical use are not out of place since this finding is consistent with empirical research results by Okoffo et al. [
The insignificant influence of income and FBO membership on farmers’ awareness of health implications of agrochemical use is supported by the work of [
Multiple linear regression results: level of awareness as driver of maize output.
Variables | Coefficients (marginal effects) | Standard error |
---|---|---|
Labor | 0.209 | 0.42 |
Farm size | 5.840 | 0.35 |
Quantity of pesticides | 2.211 | 2.11 |
Level of awareness | 3.096 | 1.98 |
Age | −0.093 | 0.10 |
Marital status | 2.318 | 1.34 |
Household size | 0.895 | 0.39 |
Education years | 4.334 | 0.78 |
Extension visits | 4.344 | 1.54 |
Credit | 1.036 | 2.71 |
Adj
Farm size was shown to be significant at 1%. It has a negative relationship with farmers’ level of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use. This variable contradicted the a priori expectation. This implies that smallholder maize farmers are more aware of agrochemicals use risk than large-scale farmers holding other factors constant. This could be that large-scale farmers do not apply pesticides by themselves regularly and usually get this job done by hired labor. It could also be as a result of resource constraint which hinders the provision of right quantities of agrochemicals and the accompanied protective gears. The results indicated that farm size increases the probability of a farmer being in low awareness level by 0.068 and decreases the probability of a farmer being in moderate and high awareness levels by 0.051 and 0.017, respectively.
Years of education are significant at 1% which agrees with the a priori expectation suggesting a positive effect on the farmers’ level of awareness of health implications of agrochemicals use. Educational attainment decreases the probability of a farmer being in the low level of awareness by 0.028 and increases the probability of being in moderate and high level of awareness by 0.021 and 0.007, respectively. The reason could be that farmers who are educated can read and understand labels on agrochemical containers and adhere to safety standards. It is a confirmation of a research conducted by Gaber and Abdel-Latif [
A multiple linear regression model was used to analyze how output is affected by the level of awareness of agrochemical use risk. The Adjusted
Farmers’ awareness levels of health implications of agrochemicals use, household size, years of education, the number of extension contacts, farm size (acres), and quantity of pesticides (liters) significantly and positively influence maize output.
It is important to know whether farmers who are aware of health implications of agrochemical use and adhere to the safety standards are able to obtain higher or lower maize output. This explanatory variable is found to be significant at 10%. It has a positive effect on output and hence meets the a priori expectation. Awareness of health implications of agrochemical use increases output by 309 kg (3.09 bags) per acre. This means that if a farmer moves from low to moderate levels of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use, his or her maize output will increase by 309 kg (3.09 bags) per acre. Likewise, if a farmer moves from moderate to high levels of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use, his or her maize output will increase by 309 kg (3.09 bags) per acre. Farmers who are aware of health implications of agrochemical use will adhere to the recommended practices and application rate and this has a great implication for the crops yield and health of the farmers. This will lead to the avoidance of over/underapplication of agrochemicals and reduce the loss of time due to an illness of the farmer thereby increasing the efficiency and productivity of the crops and farmers. According to Glover-Amengor and Tetteh [
The results show a positive relationship between farm size and output with 1% significance level. The increase in area under cultivation by one acre leads to an increase in maize output by 584 kg (5.84 bags) ceteris paribus. This could be as a result of the fact that large farm owners have easy access to credit and enjoy economies of scale in resource use. This result is consistent with Awunyo
Household size was significant at 5% and positively related to output. The positive relationship was in line with the a priori expectation. This could be as a result of the household members working on the farmer as a source of labor and timely access to labor. The increase of household size by one person leads to increase in output by 90 kg (0.9 bags) of maize. The finding is consistent with Ajah and Nmadu [
The study sought to identify factors that influence maize farmers’ awareness of health implications of agrochemicals use and its impact on maize output in Ejura-Sekyedumase Municipality. Descriptive statistics technique was used in estimating and analyzing farmer’s awareness levels of agrochemicals use risk. Ordered logit regression model was used to identify factors that affect farmers’ level of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use. Augmented Cobb-Douglas production function was also used to quantify how awareness of health implications of agrochemical use affects maize output. 35.6%, 51.4%, and 13% of the respondents had low, moderate, and high levels of awareness, respectively, of health implications of agrochemical use. The mean score of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use in the study area was 58% indicating a moderate level of awareness. The main source of information on agrochemicals use was media and manuals. Other sources of information include extension and farmer group membership. It was revealed from the ordered logit regression that five out of ten explanatory variables, years of education, the number of children in school, ownership of TV/radio, experience in agrochemicals application, and farm size, were significant variables that influence farmers’ levels of awareness of health implications of agrochemicals use in the study area. Awareness of health implications of agrochemical use significantly increases maize output. Other variables that were significant in output model include household size, years of education, the number of extension contacts, farm size, marital status, and quantity of pesticides applied.
Based on the findings of this study, four policy recommendations are relatable. The study recognizes that education is important for improving farmers’ awareness regarding health implications of agrochemicals use. It is therefore recommended that field training and practical educational programs on good and safety use of agrochemicals should be adopted by agencies to raise farmer’s awareness level of the risk associated with agrochemical use. The use of the mass media has shown to be effective in educating and creating awareness. Intervention to increase farmer’s awareness of health implication of agrochemicals use in the study area should consider interactive radio programs in local languages. Also, health implications of agrochemical use should be incorporated into our education curriculum. Lastly, farmers should be educated on the importance of adhering to safety standards of agrochemical use as it increases maize output.
See Table
Indicative questions for measuring awareness of health implications of agrochemical use.
Indicators of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use | Awareness (0 = if not aware, 1 = if aware) |
---|---|
Do you read the labels on the package? | Yes = aware, no = not aware |
If you cannot read, do you seek help from others? | Yes = aware, no = not aware |
Do you follow the instructions given on the label? | Yes = aware, no = not aware |
Are you aware of agrochemical toxicity? | Yes = aware, no = not aware |
Are you able to understand the level of toxicity, reading the sign on the label? | Yes = aware, no = not aware |
Do you eat, drink, or smoke while spraying or applying agrochemicals? | Yes = not aware, no = aware |
Do you wash your hands with soap right after spraying or applying agrochemicals? | Yes = aware, no = not aware |
Do you keep bottles/packages of agrochemicals along with food items? | Yes = not aware, no = aware |
Do you apply two or more pesticides’ type together? | Yes = not aware, no = aware |
Do you wash the sprayer/bottle in pond/canal/river/others? | Yes = not aware, no = aware |
Do you spray when it is windy? | Yes = not aware, no = aware |
Do you determine the wind direction first before spraying? | Yes =aware, no = not aware |
Do you apply the recommended dosage? | Yes =aware, no = not aware |
Does overdose affect maize stand? | Yes = aware, no = not aware |
Do you use personal protective gears such as gloves and overall clothing during agrochemical spraying or application? | Yes = aware, no = not aware |
| |
Total number of aware scores |
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.