This study investigated whether the physical fitness and body composition of 10–12-year-old Danish children are related to participation in leisure-time club-based sporting activities. The study involved 544 Danish 10–12-year-old 5th-grade municipal schoolchildren (269 boys and 275 girls, 11.1 ± 0.4 years). After answering a questionnaire about leisure-time sporting activities, the children were divided into four groups: football club participation (FC; n=141), other ball games (OBG; n=42), other sports (OS; n=194), and no sports-club participation (NSC; n=167). The children completed a battery of health and fitness tests, including a 20 m sprint test, a standing long-jump test, the Yo-Yo IR1 children’s test (YYIR1C), and body composition, blood pressure, resting heart rate (
It is known that precursors of adult cardiovascular disease (CVD) begin in childhood and that paediatric obesity, an important influence on overall CVD risk, tracks to later life and is associated with decreased quality of life and early mortality [
Organised leisure-time sports-club participation is one potential way of increasing overall physical activity and fitness in young people, though other approaches can also be used, including physical education at school, school playground activities, and nonorganised leisure-time activities. Studies have shown that sports-club membership predicts higher levels of leisure-time physical activity [
There are some indications that physical fitness and body composition in children are influenced positively by sports-club participation, at least in the case of certain sports, compared to age-matched children not participating in organised leisure-time sports-club activities. Several training studies have shown that short-term (6–26 weeks) team-sport training improves intermittent exercise performance and aerobic fitness [
The aim of the present study was therefore to investigate whether the physical fitness and body composition of 10–12-year-old Danish boys and girls was related to the type of voluntary sports-club activity, i.e., participation in football, other ball games, and other sports versus school-children with no sports-club involvement.
The study used a cross-sectional design, including physical testing and basal information, to test whether physical fitness and body composition are associated with a specific type of sports-club participation, e.g., football, other ball games, other sports, and no sports-club participation.
Five hundred and forty-four Danish 10–12-year-old 5th-grade schoolchildren (269 boys and 275 girls) participated in the study. The children were aged 11.1 ± 0.4 years, were 150.5 ± 7.2 cm tall, and weighed 41.5 ± 8.4 kg. They came from nine different schools, five located in the capital regions of Frederiksberg and Copenhagen municipalities and four in the countryside regions of Frederikssund and Roskilde municipalities, about 40 km away from the capital.
The study was approved by the Committees on Biomedical Research Ethics for the Capital Region of Denmark (J.no. H-15008117). Child assent and written informed parental consent were obtained for all participants. The children were tested during weeks 3–6 of the school year. All tests were performed by university staff members, supported by the schoolteachers.
All the testing was performed in the late summer (August to September) at the beginning of 5th grade. The children answered two questions about their leisure-time physical activity: Do you do any sports in your spare time as a member of a sports club? If so, which? The children were divided into four different groups according to their leisure-time sports-club participation: football club (FC); other ball games (OBG; e.g., handball, floorball, and basketball); other sports (OS; e.g., gymnastics, dancing, martial arts, tennis, badminton, volleyball, and riding); no sports-club participation (NSC). Ball games were defined as invasive ball games. Table
Number and percentage of children in relation to participation in club-based leisure-time sporting activity.
| | | | | |
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| 97 (36.0%) | 16 (6.0%) | 75 (27.9%) | 81 (30.1%) | 269 |
| 44 (16.0%) | 26 (9.4%) | 119 (43.3%) | 86 (31.3%) | 275 |
| 141 (25.9%) | 42 (7.8%) | 194 (35.6%) | 167 (30.7%) | 544 |
In addition to the questionnaire, the children underwent measurements of body composition (height, weight, lean body mass, and percent body fat), resting blood pressure, and resting heart rate (
After the warm-up, the children performed 2 x 20 m maximal sprints with at least 2 min of recovery between sprints. All sprints started from a standing position and were timed using two ports of light sensors (Witty Microgate, Bolzano, Italy) placed at 0 m (positioned 30 cm in front of the standing-start position) and at 20 m. The best time recorded was noted as the test result. The 20 m sprint has been shown to be a valid and reliable method for young children [
The warm-up included instructions about completing the squat jump from the akimbo position. The children stood upright with their toes just behind a line with their feet parallel and shoulder-width apart; after flexing the knees to the squat position and holding the position for at least 2 s, the children jumped as far as they could and the distance from the start line to the heel position was measured. Using a measuring tape, the jump length was measured to the nearest centimetre. Each child had two attempts. If they failed to perform two correct jumps, they were allowed an additional attempt. The longest jump was noted as the test result. The maximal horizontal jump length test is reliable and has been shown to be strongly associated with lower- and upper-body maximal strength [
The YYIR1C test was performed indoors on one half of a wooden-floor handball court in accordance with the studies by Ahler, Bendiksen, Krustrup & Wedderkopp [
Arterial blood pressure was measured with the subjects in the supine position following at least 10 min of rest in a quiet room providing an optimal setting for relaxation. Blood pressure was recorded in mmHg as the average of three measurements on the left upper arm using an automatic blood pressure monitor (M6 HEM-7223-F, Omron, IL, USA), with the cuff size adjusted to the arm as appropriate.
Height was measured with 0.1 cm precision using a Tanita Leicester transportable stadiometer (Tanita, Amsterdam, Netherlands). Body mass, body fat percentage, and lean body mass were measured using an InBody 230 multifrequency body composition analyser (Biospace, California, USA). The InBody 230 has been validated in 7–12-year-old children, showing precise lean body mass but underestimated fat mass and fat percentage [
No maturation status assessment was performed. The subjects were weighed as described by Karelis, Chamberland, Aubertin-Leheudre, and Duval [
Postural balance was assessed using a single-leg flamingo balance test [
Data are reported as means (±SD). All data were tested for normality. Between-group differences were tested using one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) in Sigma Plot 13.0 (SYSTAT). When a significant interaction was detected, a Bonferroni post hoc test was used to locate the significant differences. Significance was accepted at p<0.05. Some of the children did not attend in one of the two test days or did not want to complete some of the tests (e.g., weight measures, YYIR1C), which means that the number of participants may differ between each test. When differences are presented in percentages, they are calculated as ((xx-NSC)/NSC).
Children active in leisure-time club-based ball games (FC and OBG) had a 7 bpm lower (p<0.05)
Overall means ± standard deviations for body composition and fitness variables by participation groups.
| | | | |
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| 151.2 ± 7.2 | 153.6 ± 6.6 | 150.1 ± 7.4 | 149.5 ± 6.7 |
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| 42.1 ± 8.1 | 44.7 ± 7.0 | 40.6 ± 8.2 | 41.2 ± 9.1 |
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| 18.3 ± 2.6 | 18.9 ± 2.3 | 17.9 ± 2.5 | 18.3 ± 3.2 |
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| 17.5 ± 2.9 | 18.4 ± 2.6 | 16.7 ± 2.9 | 16.4 ± 2.8 |
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| 20.7 ± 7.2 | 21.9 ± 7.6 | 21.1 ± 6.8 | 23.1 ± 8.2 |
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| 1083 ± 527 | 968 ± 448 | 776 ± 398 | 687 ± 378 |
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| 203 ± 9 | 206 ± 9 | 204 ± 9 | 204 ± 9 |
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| 82 ± 5 | 81 ± 6 | 84 ± 6 | 86 ± 8 |
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| 89 ± 4 | 89 ± 4 | 91 ± 4 | 92 ± 6 |
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| 91 ± 4 | 92 ± 4 | 93 ± 3 | 95 ± 3 |
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| 3.97 ± 0.25 | 4.11 ± 0.26 | 4.05 ± 0.26 | 4.13 ± 0.31 |
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| 121.9 ± 15.5 | 120.8 ± 14.7 | 118.9 ± 17.4 | 114.0 ± 17.9 |
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| 17.4 ± 9.2 | 17.8 ± 9.1 | 18.3 ± 10.3 | 19.6 ± 8.5 |
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| 68 ± 9 | 70 ± 10 | 72 ± 10 | 75 ± 10 |
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| 108 ± 10 | 109 ± 10 | 106 ± 11 | 107 ± 11 |
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| 63 ± 6 | 63 ± 6 | 63 ± 6 | 64 ± 7 |
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| 78 ± 7 | 78 ± 7 | 77 ± 7 | 78 ± 7 |
Means ± standard deviations for body composition variables and physical performance by participation groups and gender.
| | | | |||||
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| | | | | | | | |
| 150.9 ± 7.1 | 151.0 ± 7.7 | 154.2 ± 6.7 | 152.3 ± 6.8 | 151.4 ± 7.4 | 149.5 ± 7.5 | 149.5 ± 6.2 | 149.4 ± 7.3 |
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| 41.9 ± 8.9 | 42.2 ± 7.5 | 42.3 ± 6.0 | 44.3 ± 7.8 | 40.9 ± 7.8 | 40.5 ± 8.5 | 41.4 ± 9.0 | 40.9 ± 9.2 |
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| 18.4 ± 2.9 | 18.2 ± 2.3 | 17.7 ± 1.9 | 18.9 ± 2.5 | 17.8 ± 2.4 | 17.9 ± 2.6 | 18.4 ± 3.3 | 18.2 ± 3.2 |
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| 17.5 ± 2.8 | 17.4 ± 3.3 | 18.7 ± 2.7 | 18.1 ± 2.7 | 17.2 ± 2.9 | 16.4 ± 2.9 | 16.6 ± 2.4 | 16.1 ± 3.1 |
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| 20.0 ± 8.1 | 21.9 ± 6.3 | 17.5 ± 5.8 | 24.1 ± 7.6 | 19.5 ± 6.5 | 22.0 ± 6.9 | 22.5 ± 8.1 | 23.6 ± 8.4 |
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| 1178 ± 570 | 873 ± 386 | 1074 ± 473 | 904 ± 419 | 846 ± 421£ | 731 ± 377£ | 759 ± 434£ | 621 ± 295 |
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| 203 ± 9 | 205 ± 9 | 204 ± 11 | 206 ± 8 | 202 ± 9 | 205 ± 8 | 202 ± 8 | 207 ± 9 |
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| 82 ± 6 | 83 ± 5 | 80 ± 5 | 82 ± 7 | 84 ± 5 | 84 ± 6 | 87 ± 9 | 86 ± 6 |
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| 89 ± 6 | 90 ± 4 | 88 ± 4 | 90 ± 4 | 90 ± 4 | 91 ± 4 | 91 ± 8 | 92 ± 4 |
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| 91 ± 4 | 93 ± 3 | 91 ± 4 | 93 ± 4 | 93 ± 3 | 94 ± 3 | 94 ± 4 | 95 ± 3 |
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| 3.97 ± 0.25 | 3.99 ± 0.27 | 4.03 ± 0.26 | 4.16 ± 0.26£ | 4.04 ± 0.28 | 4.06 ± 0.25 | 4.15 ± 0.34£ | 4.11 ± 0.29£ |
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| 121.6 ± 14.7 | 122.5 ± 17.5 | 127.1 ± 13.3 | 115.9 ± 13.3 | 123.8 ± 18.1 | 115.0 ± 16.3Δ | 116.2 ± 18.1 | 112.0 ± 17.8 |
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| 18.6 ± 9.6 | 14.8 ± 7.9 | 17.7 ± 7.2 | 18.0 ± 10.0 | 19.1 ± 10.5 | 17.8 ± 16.3 | 20.4 ± 7.6 | 18.8 ± 9.2 |
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| 67 ± 9 | 68 ± 9 | 69 ± 10 | 70 ± 10 | 70 ± 10 | 73 ± 10 | 74 ± 8£ | 76 ± 11£&Δ |
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| 108 ± 11 | 106 ± 8 | 108 ± 11 | 110 ± 10 | 108 ± 12 | 105 ± 11 | 109 ± 11 | 106 ± 11 |
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| 63 ± 7 | 63 ± 6 | 63 ± 7 | 63 ± 6 | 62 ± 7 | 63 ± 6 | 64 ± 6 | 64 ± 7 |
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| 78 ± 7 | 77 ± 6 | 78 ± 7 | 79 ± 7 | 77 ± 8 | 77 ± 7 | 79 ± 7 | 78 ± 7 |
£Significantly different from boys engaged in football clubs
&Significantly different from girls engaged in football clubs
ΔSignificantly different from boys playing other sports.
Body composition variables related to height, weight, lean body mass, and fat percentage are presented in Table
YYIR1C test performance was 57% and 41% better in FC and OBG than in NSC (p<0.05). FC performed 40% better than OS (1083 ± 527, 968 ± 448, 776 ± 398, and 687 ± 378 m for FC, OBG, OS, and NSC, resp.; Table
After 1 min of the YYIR1C, all the three groups engaged in club-based sporting activities had lower (p<0.05) submaximal HR measured as %
Children engaged in club-based football had better (p<0.05) 20 m sprint performance (FC: 3.97 ± 0.25 s; OBG: 4.11 ± 0.26 s; OS: 4.05 ± 0.26 s; NSC: 4.13 ± 0.31 s) than the three other groups, with FC boys having better (p<0.05) performance than the NSC boys. FC girls had 9% better (p<0.05) horizontal jump performance than NSC girls. There were no other significant between-group differences for horizontal jump performance and postural balance (Table
The main findings of this study were that 10–12-year-old Danish children engaged in club-based leisure-time football and other ball games had better aerobic and muscular fitness than children not active in sports clubs. Furthermore, the children engaged in club-based football had better aerobic fitness than those engaged in other sports and were faster in 20 m sprinting compared to the other ball games. Most of these differences were present for girls as well as for boys, indicating that leisure-time ball-game activities are important for fitness and health profile in boys and girls aged 10–12 years. No significant differences were observed between groups, either overall or within gender, for fat percentage, BMI, horizontal jumping, and the flamingo balance test, except that those girls engaged in club-based football had higher horizontal jumping performance than girls in other sports or with no leisure-time sports.
The present study showed that children engaged in leisure-time football and other ball games had 9% and 7% lower
YYIR1C performance, which is known to be correlated to aerobic fitness in children [
The differences in cardiovascular fitness could be related to the high amount of vigorous exercise carried out during ball games like football and handball [
The present study also evaluated selected variables related to muscular fitness. The children playing football had 2–4% better 20 m sprint performance than the three other groups. One explanation for this could be the higher lean body mass, but the difference was only identified between FC and NSC, and those engaged in other team sports had poor sprinting performance despite high lean body mass values. Larsen et al. [
The findings of higher lean mass for football players and no significant difference in fat mass are in accordance with the Portuguese studies by Povóas et al. [
A limitation of this study is the lack of information on the children’s everyday activities (e.g., active transport and activities at school). Obviously, it is also worth noting that the sports-club participation is voluntary and that the children may have chosen to take part in the sports-club activity based on skills, interests, and prior exposure to sports. The number of participants in the present study is high for FG, OS, and NSC, ranging from 141 to 197 participants, but not as high for the other ball games, with 42 participants, giving a stronger conclusion on sports-club football engagement compared to the other ball games. A further limitation is that there is no evaluation of the link between the number of years the children have been active in sports clubs and their fitness and health profile. Finally, it should be considered that the body composition analyser chosen for the study is well correlated with DXA scan method but is shown to underestimate fat mass and body fat percentage [
In conclusion, this study showed that 10–12-year-old children engaged in club-based ball games during leisure time had lower resting heart rate, better exercise capacity, and higher lean body mass than children not engaged in leisure-time sports. Thus, participation in club-based leisure-time ball-game activities seems to be of importance for the fitness and health profile of prepubertal children.
The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.
The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the paper.
The authors would like to thank the participating pupils, teachers, and schools for their contribution to this project. This study was supported by the FIFA Medical Assessment and Research Centre (F-MARC) and the Danish Football Association (DBU). The foundations did not participate in the analysis, interpretation, or writing of the paper.