Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014 (2014), Article ID 108037, 31 pages

http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/108037

Research Article

A Comparative Analysis of Ethnomedicinal Practices for Treating Gastrointestinal Disorders Used by Communities Living in Three National Parks (Korea)

Hyun Kim,¹ Mi-Jang Song,² Heldenbrand Brian,³ and Kyoungho Choi⁴

¹School of Alternative Medicine and Health Science, Jeonju University, 303 Cheonjam-ro, Wansan-gu, Jeonju 560-759, Republic of Korea

²Department of Integrated Bioresource Science, Graduate School of Jeonju University, 303 Cheonjam-ro, Wansan-gu, Jeonju 560-759, Republic of Korea

³School of Liberal Arts, Jeonju University, 303 Cheonjam-ro, Wansan-gu, Jeonju 560-759, Republic of Korea

⁴Department of Basic Medical Science, Jeonju University, 303 Cheonjam-ro, Wansan-gu, Jeonju 560-759, Republic of Korea

Received 3 March 2014; Accepted 16 May 2014; Published 17 August 2014

Academic Editor: Rainer W. Bussmann

Copyright © 2014 Hyun Kim et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract.

The purpose of this study is to comparatively analyze the ethnomedicinal practices on gastrointestinal disorders within communities in Jirisan National Park, Gayasan National Park, and Hallasan National Park of Korea. Data was collected through participant observations and indepth interviews with semistructured questionnaires. Methods for comparative analysis were accomplished using the informant consensus factor, fidelity level, and internetwork analysis. A total of 490 ethnomedicinal practices recorded from the communities were classified into 110 families, 176 genera, and 220 species that included plants, animals, fungi, and alga. The informant consensus factor values in the disorder categories were enteritis, and gastralgia (1.0), followed by indigestion (0.94), constipation (0.93), and abdominal pain and gastroenteric trouble (0.92). In terms of fidelity levels, 71 plant species showed fidelity levels of 100%. The internetwork analysis between disorders and all medicinal species are grouped in the center by the four categories of indigestion, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and gastroenteric trouble, respectively. Regarding the research method of this study, the comparative analysis methods will contribute to the availability of orally transmitted ethnomedicinal knowledge. Among the methods of analysis, the use of internetwork analysis as a tool for analysis in this study provides imperative internetwork maps between gastrointestinal disorders and medicinal species.

1. Introduction

After the agreement of the Nagoya Protocol, which has highlighted the importance of traditional knowledge of local communities, interest has grown stronger regarding ethnomedicinal knowledge in the world [1]. Ethnomedicinal knowledge plays an extremely vital role in the health care systems of developing countries and is utilized as an alternative for the treatment of disorders without side effects in developed countries [2]. Investigations regarding ethnomedicinal knowledge in local communities have often been conducted to the indigenous communities of Asia, Africa, and South America.

At present, studies on the ethnomedicinal practices of local communities to treat specific disorders have been accomplished, including liver disease [3, 4], birth-related diseases [5, 6], uremia [7], diabetes [8], psychiatric disorders [9], ophthalmology [10], skin disorders [11], stomach issues [11], veterinary medicine [12, 13], and other health conditions. However, research using INA on the ethnomedicinal practices to treat gastrointestinal disorders within local communities has yet to be accomplished.

Investigations for the ethnomedicinal practices of local communities to treat specific disorders in Korea have included respiratory diseases [14], digestive system disorders [15], and pain relief [16] for communities in North Jeolla Province.

National parks in Korea are areas designated to protect the representative ecosystem and the natural/cultural sceneries by the Ministry of Environment and are defined as natural areas of both land and sea. National parks are managed directly by the government and their purpose is to combine both a conservation and a sustainable use of the natural resources within the parks.

Designated as the first national park in 1967, Jirisan National Park spreads across one city and four counties and lies within three provinces. The total area of Jirisan National Park is 485 km², which makes it the largest mountainous national park in Korea.

Hallasan National Park is located at the heart of Jeju Island, the largest and most beautiful island in Korea. Its total area is 1,849.18 km² and is located at the southernmost tip of the nation.

Located in the deep inlands of southeastern Korea, Gayasan National Park spreads across one city and four counties and is located within two provinces. The total area of the park is 76.256 km² and is known as the sacred site of Buddhism.

Accordingly, this research is the first attempt for comparing and analyzing ethnomedicinal practices to treat gastrointestinal disorders of communities in three national parks in Korea. However, up until now, a quantitative analysis for ethnomedicinal knowledge of local communities has relied solely on the consensus of its informants [17, 18] and the recorded fidelity levels [19–21].

These methods have limitations on the sufficient interpretation of ethnomedicinal knowledge as a complicated knowledge system embedded within the traditional ethnographical properties. Therefore, a deeper analysis of ethnomedicinal practices in treating specific disorders within the local communities is necessary for obtaining more specific details regarding the internetwork analysis (INA) between disorders and medicinal species.

This research suggests that the applications gained from utilizing the comparative INA for ethnomedicinal practices on gastrointestinal disorders within communities in three national parks will result in further research incorporating INA. The three study areas included in this study are Jirisan National Park (JNP), Gayasan National Park (GNP), and Hallasan National Park (HNP). These regions are included as typical inland and island areas of the southern region in Korea. Among the three national parks, the ethnomedicinal practices of the communities living within HNP were investigated in regard to both medicinal plants [22] and medicinal animals [23].

The results of this study can be utilized to develop functional foods, pharmafoods, and new ethnomedicinal practices for gastrointestinal disorders in these communities and other regions within Korea.

2. Research Area and Method

2.1. Natural and Social Environments of Research Area

The study area consists of the southern region of the Korean peninsula and its many islands, which lie between 33° 06′N to 36° 09′N latitude and 125° 58′E to 128° 18′E longitude (Figure 1). The total population in 2012 of the study area was 1,161,002. The area measures approximately 2,410,434 km² and includes five provinces, four cities, and eight counties in its administrative district [24]. The annual precipitation is around 1,200~2,300 mm in which the coastal area generally receives more rainfall than the inland regions. The annual average temperature of the inland regions is 13°C, while Jeju Island records 16.2°C [25]. The natural and social environments of the three national parks are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: Natural and social environments of three national parks.

Environment
JNP
GNP
HNP

Location
35°13′N~33°27′N 

127°27′E~127°49′E
35°45′N~35°49′N 

128°02′E~128°09′E
33°06′N~34°00′N 

126°08′E~126°58′E

Administrative district
Three provinces, one city, and four counties
Two provinces, one city, and four counties
One province and two cities

Population (no.)
241,784
335,934
583,284

Area
485 km²
76.256 km²
1,849.18 km²

Annual precipitation
1,200~1,600 mm
1,200~1,600 mm
1,584~2,393 mm

Annual average temperature
12°C~14°C
11°C~13.2°C
15.6~16.9°C

Geographical characteristics
The center of the southern region of Korea
The southern region of Korea
The largest volcanic island in Korea

Climatic zone of vegetation
Between a warm temperate zone and a subarctic zone
Between a warm temperature zone to an alpine or arctic zone

*JNP: Jirisan National Park, GNP: Gayasan National Park, HNP: Hallasan National Park.

Figure 1: Investigation sites.

2.2. Investigative Method

Field investigations were conducted from March 2009 to November 2012. Proper data was collected using participant observations and indepth interviews, as the informants also became investigators themselves through attending informal meetings, open and group discussions, and overt observations with semistructured questionnaires [21, 26].

The content of the semistructured questionnaires was composed of diverse information regarding medicinal species used to treat gastrointestinal disorders, including local names, used parts, methods of preparation, manufacturing and administration, dosage, and the usable duration regarding each curable formula [21, 27, 28].

All specimens were collected during their flowering or fruiting seasons and were organized utilizing the normal specimen manufacturing method [20, 27]. The voucher specimens were deposited for preservation in the herbarium of Jeonju University. The precise identification of species mentioned by the informants was performed in accordance with Lee [29], Lee [30], Ahn [31], Lee [32], and Park [33]. Scientific names were confirmed by the National Knowledge and Information System for Biological Species of Korea [34].

2.3. Quantitative Analysis

2.3.1. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)

The ICF was used to analyze the agreement degree of the informants’ knowledge about each category of disorders [17, 18]. The ICF was calculated using the following formula:

where is the number of use reports of informants for a particular gastrointestinal disorder and is the number of species used by all informants for a particular gastrointestinal disorder.

2.3.2. Fidelity Level (FL)

The FL was employed to determine the most important species used for treating certain gastrointestinal disorders by the local practitioners and the elderly people living in the study area [19–21]. The FL was calculated using the following formula:

where is the number of informants that mentioned the specific species used to treat certain disorders and is the total number of the informants who utilized the species as medicine for treating any given disorder.

2.3.3. Internetwork Analysis (INA)

Internetwork analysis does not focus on the independent characteristics of an individual within the community but considers the results of the interrelationship among each individual of a community. INA has been applied within communities for various ethnographical problems, including ethnogenesis [35] and obesity [36–38]. However, the INA had yet to be applied to ethnomedicinal knowledge, although it has been included in relation to its ethnographical properties.

Our research has newly applied this method in order to attain more internetwork information from the treatment of ethnomedicinal practices on gastrointestinal disorders within communities in Korea. The results of the INA of disorders and medicinal species were analyzed using UCINET (Ver. 6.460) and NetDraw (Ver. 2.125) software programs [39, 40].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Ethnographic Characteristics of the Region

The ethnomedicinal practices for gastrointestinal disorders were recorded by 507 informants (133 men and 374 women) at 185 sites (Figure 1). The average age of the informants was 76 years, with a range in age from 43 to 95, with residents living more than 30 years in the study area. The ethnographical characteristics of the communities are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2: Ethnographical characteristics of three national parks.

Characteristics
JNP
GNP
HNP

Gender

    Male
67 (34.9%)
36 (15.6%)
31 (36.5%)

    Female
125 (65.1%)
195 (84.4%)
54 (63.5%)

Average age
72.9 (44~95)
76.8 (52~93)
78.4 (43~94)

Educational attainment

    Never attended school
138 (71.9%)
165 (71.4%)
62 (72.9%)

    Attended school
54 (28.1%)
66 (28.6%)
23 (27.1%)

Linguistics
The pronunciation between the eastern and western communities on the Jirisan axis depicts dissimilar intonations.
Numerous dialects  

different from the inland communities.

Food
The local communities in the eastern region of Jirisan widely used the seed powder of Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC. and the leaves of the Isodon japonicus (Burm.) Hara, while local communities in the western region did not consume these foods.
Quite diverse from foods of the inland communities in regard to the recipe and ingredients.

Home economy
Men usually support their families financially.
Women traditionally support their families.

3.2. Analysis of Ethnomedicinal Practices

24 types of gastrointestinal disorders were treated by ethnomedicinal practices, which included abdominal pain, acute gastroenteritis, constipation, and other conditions (Table 3). The 24 types recorded in this study were similar to previous research, which classified 14 types of respiratory system diseases, 29 types of digestive system diseases, and 23 types of pain relief treatments [14, 16, 21]. Among them, 20 types of disorders were recorded in the communities living within JNP, followed by the 16 types of disorders within HNP, and the 11 types of disorders in GNP (Table 4).

Table 3: Ethnomedicinal practices for treating gastrointestinal disorders recorded in three national parks.

Disorders
Classification
Family name
Scientific name
*Abbreviation
**Region
Korean name
Used part
Preparation
FL

Animal
Anguillidae
Anguilla japonica Temminck and Schlegel
A6
JNP
Baemjangeo
Whole part
Simmer
50.00

Apidae
Apis cerana Fabricius
A7
JNP
Jaeraekkulbeol
Honey
Raw
3.45

Bombycidae
Bombyx mori L.
A12
GNP, JNP
Nuenabang
Larva, Pupa
Decoction and panbroiled
100.00

Columbidae
Streptopelia orientalis Latham
A60
GNP
Metbidulgi
Meat
Simmer
33.33

Congridae
Conger myriaster Brevoort
A18
HNP
Bungjangeo
Gallbladder
Raw
100.00

Osmeridae
Plecoglossus altivelis Temminck and Schlegel
A45
JNP
Euneo
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Percichthyidae
Lateolabrax japonicus Cuvier and Valenciennes
A30
HNP
Nongeo
Gallbladder
Dried, dissolution, powder, and raw
85.71

Phasianidae
Gallus gallus domesticus L.
A25
GNP, JNP
Dak
Whole part
Infusion
23.38

Suidae
Sus scrofa L.
A62
HNP
Dwaeji
Gallbladder
Raw and maceration
40.00

Fungi
Ganodermataceae
Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst
F2
GNP
Yeongji
Whole part
Boiling
22.22

Pleurotaceae
Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Sing.
F3
JNP
Pyogo
Whole part
Porridge
100.00

Polyporaceae
Fomes fomentarius (L.) Fr.
F1
JNP
Malgupbeoseot
Whole part
Decoction
33.33

Actinidiaceae
Actinidia arguta (Siebold and Zucc.) Planch. ex Miq.
P4
GNP
Darae
Stem
Infusion
66.67

Anacardiaceae
Rhus javanica L.
P106
JNP
Bungnamu
Gallnut
Decoction
100.00

Rhus verniciflua Stokes
P107
JNP
Onnamu
Bark, stem
Infusion
11.43

Araliaceae
Aralia cordata var. continentalis (Kitag.) Y.C.Chu
P14
GNP
Dokhwal
Root
Infusion
30.00

Eleutherococcus sessiliflorus (Rupr. and Maxim.) S.Y.Hu
P42
JNP
Ogalpinamu
Stem
Decoction and infusion
100.00

Asteraceae
Artemisia princeps Pamp.
P17
GNP, HNP, JNP
Ssuk
Aerial part, leaf, whole part, Young leaf
Infusion, juice, and tea
51.13

Cirsium japonicum var. maackii (Maxim.) Matsum.
P28
GNP
Eonggeongkwi
Root
Juice
40.00

Zinnia violacea Cav.
P141
JNP
Baegilhong
Stem
Infusion
100.00

Brassicaceae
Raphanus sativus L.
P102
JNP
Mu
Root
Boiling and dried
100.00

Campanulaceae
Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A.DC.
P86
GNP
Doraji
Root
Infusion
100.00

Euphorbiaceae
Ricinus communis L.
P109
HNP
Pimaja
Seed
Oil
1.10

Fabaceae
Glycine max (L.) Merr.
P50
JNP
Kong
Seed
Fermentation and dissolution
15.29

Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.
P51
GNP
Gamcho
Root
Infusion
46.15

Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi
P97
GNP
Chik
Flower, root
Dried, decoction, grain syrup, and infusion
25.76

Sophora flavescens Solander ex Aiton
P122
GNP
Gosam
Root
Maceration
6.25

Abdominal pain

Gentianaceae
Gentiana scabra Bunge
P47
GNP
Yongdam
Root
A sweet drink made from fermented rice and infusion
96.00

Geraniaceae
Geranium sibiricum L.
P48
JNP
Jwisonipul
Whole part
Decoction
100.00

Geranium thunbergii Siebold and Zucc.
P49
GNP, HNP
Ijilpul
Leaf, whole part
Decoction and infusion
76.92

Juglandaceae
Juglans mandshurica Maxim.
P58
JNP
Garaenamu
Fruit
Raw
100.00

Platycarya strobilacea Siebold and Zucc.
P85
GNP
Gulpinamu
Stem
Infusion
100.00

Lamiaceae
Leonurus japonicus Houtt.
P61
GNP, HNP, JNP
Ingmocho
Aerial part
Decoction, infusion, juice, pill, and taffy
88.71

Mentha piperascens (Malinv.) Holmes
P69
HNP
Bakha
Leaf
Juice
100.00

Perilla frutescens var. japonica (Hassk.) Hara
P77
GNP
Deulkkae
Seed
Mixed in honey
63.64

Plant
Salvia plebeia R.Br.
P114
GNP
Baeamchajeugi
Whole part
Infusion
50.00

Lardizabalaceae
Akebia quinata (Houtt.) Decne.
P8
GNP
Eureumdeonggul
Stem
Infusion
85.71

Liliaceae
Allium scorodorprasum var. viviparum Regel
P11
HNP
Maneul
Bulb
Juice
42.86

Meliaceae
Melia azedarach L.
P68
HNP
Meolguseulnamu
Fruit
Decoction
47.37

Papaveraceae
Papaver somniferum L.
P74
GNP, JNP
Yanggwibi
Fruit, leaf, stem, whole part
Brewing, decoction, dissolution, dried, grain syrup, infusion, maceration, and raw
82.54

Phytolaccaceae
Phytolacca esculenta VanHoutte
P80
GNP
Jarigong
Root
Infusion
29.41

Plantaginaceae
Plantago asiatica L.
P84
GNP
Jilgyeongi
Root
Juice
6.90

Poaceae
Hordeum vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Asch.
P54
GNP
Bori
Malt, seed
Dissolution and steep
5.52

Oryza sativa L.
P72
JNP
Byeo
Seed
Porridge
42.86

Oryza sativa var. terrestris Makino
P73
HNP
Sandu
Seed
Porridge
15.38

Triticum aestivum L.
P129
HNP
Mil
Seed
Pill
3.85

Zea mays L.
P139
GNP
Oksusu
Style
Infusion
100.00

Punicaceae
Punica granatum L.
P99
GNP, HNP
Seongnyunamu
Fruit
Extraction, infusion, and raw
50.00

Ranunculaceae
Pulsatilla koreana (Yabe ex Nakai) Nakai ex Nakai
P98
GNP
Halmikkot
Root
A sweet drink made from fermented rice, grain syrup, and infusion
44.78

Rosaceae
Prunus davidiana (Carriere) Franch.
P93
GNP
Sanboksanamu
Fruit
Extraction
100.00

Prunus mume Siebold and Zucc.
P94
GNP, JNP
Maesillamu
Fruit
Extraction
40.30

Sanguisorba officinalis L.
P115
HNP
Oipul
Root
Decoction
22.22

Rubiaceae
Gardenia jasminoides Ellis
P45
JNP
Chijanamu
Fruit
Decoction
100.00

Rutaceae
Phellodendron amurense Rupr.
P79
HNP
Hwangbyeongnamu
Bark
Brewing and decoction
7.69

Zanthoxylum schinifolium Siebold and Zucc.
P138
GNP
Sanchonamu
Fruit
Oil
21.43

Schisandraceae
Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill.
P117
GNP
Omija
Stem
Infusion
66.67

Solanaceae
Solanum nigrum L.
P121
GNP
Kkamajung
Aerial part
Infusion
11.76

Theaceae
Camellia japonica L.
P21
HNP
Dongbaengnamu
Fruit
Oil
40.00

Vitaceae
Vitis coignetiae Pulliat ex Planch.
P135
GNP
Meoru
Stem
Infusion
100.00

Animal
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthys olivaceus Temminck and Schlegel
A41
HNP
Neopchi
Gallbladder
Dried
100.00

Percichthyidae
Lateolabrax japonicus Cuvier and Valenciennes
A30
HNP
Nongeo
Gallbladder
Dried
14.29

Suidae
Sus scrofa L.
A62
HNP
Dwaeji
Gallbladder
Dried
20.00

Cucurbitaceae
Cucumis sativus L.
P35
JNP
Oi
Leaf
Raw
100.00

Fabaceae
Glycine max (L.) Merr.
P50
JNP
Kong
Seed
Fermentation and dissolution
8.24

Acute gastroenteritis

Juglandaceae
Juglans regia Dode
P59
JNP
Hodunamu
Nut
Roast
100.00

Liliaceae
Allium scorodoprasum var. viviparum Regel
P11
JNP
Maneul
Bulb
Roast
35.71

Plant
Menispermaceae
Cocculus trilobus (Thunb.) DC.
P34
JNP
Daengdaengideonggul
Stem
Infusion
12.20

Plantaginaceae
Plantago asiatica L.
P84
JNP
Jilgyeongi
Root
Juice
13.79

Punicaceae
Punica granatum L.
P99
JNP
Seongnyunamu
Fruit
Brewing, juice, and raw
50.00

Ranunculaceae
Aconitum pseudolaeve Nakai
P3
JNP
Jinbeom
Leaf, root
Decoction
100.00

Gryllotalpidae
Gryllotalpa orientalis Burmeister
A28
JNP
Ttanggangaji
Whole part
Powder
83.33

Mantidae
Tenodera angustipennis Saussure
A64
JNP
Samagwi
Egg sac
Decoction
50.00

Animal
Tenodera aridifolia Stoll
A65
JNP
Wangsamagwi
Egg sac
Decoction
50.00

Vespidae
Vespa analis parallela Andre
A67
JNP
Jommalbeol
Hive, imago, larva
Brewing
81.82

Vespa crabro flavofasciata Cameron
A68
JNP
Malbeol
Hive, imago, larva
Brewing
87.10

Vespa simillimasimillima Smith
A70
JNP
Teolbomalbeol
Hive, imago, larva
Brewing
81.82

Fungi
Polyporaceae
Fomes fomentarius (L.: Fr.) Fr.
F1
JNP
Malgupbeoseot
Whole part
Decoction
33.33

Asteraceae
Ainsliaea acerifolia Sch.Bip.
P7
JNP
Danpungchwi
Leaf
Seasoned cooked vegetables
100.00

Boraginaceae
Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold and Zucc.
P63
JNP
Jichi
Root
Powder
11.11

Constipation

Cactaceae
Opuntia ficus-indica var. saboten Makino
P71
HNP
Sonbadakseoninjang
Stem
Raw
33.33

Ebenaceae
Diospyros kaki Thunb.
P41
JNP
Gamnamu
Fruit
Fermentation
2.40

Euphorbiaceae
Ricinus communis L.
P109
GNP, HNP
Pimaja
Fruit, seed
Oil and panfried
43.53

Liliaceae
Polygonatum odoratum var. pluriflorum (Miq.) Ohwi
P87
JNP
Dunggulle
Root
Tea
40.00

Plant
Smilax china L.
P120
JNP
Cheongmiraedeonggul
Fruit
Brewing
100.00

Meliaceae
Melia azedarach L.
P68
HNP
Meolguseulnamu
Root
Decoction
21.05

Phytolaccaceae
Phytolacca esculenta VanHoutte
P80
GNP
Jarigong
Root
Raw
35.29

Rosaceae
Prunus tomentosa Thunb.
P95
JNP
Aengdonamu
Fruit
Brewing
100.00

Rutaceae
Zanthoxylum schinifolium Siebold and Zucc.
P138
GNP
Sanchonamu
Fruit
Oil
14.29

Saururaceae
Saururus chinensis (Lour.) Baill.
P116
JNP
Sambaekcho
Leaf
Decoction
50.00

Theaceae
Camellia japonica L.
P21
HNP
Dongbaengnamu
Fruit
Oil
40.00

Deficiency of intestinal function

Apidae
Apis mellifera L.
A8
JNP
Yangbongkkulbeol
Honey
Raw
10.00

Animal
Vespidae
Vespa analis parallela Andre
A67
JNP
Jommalbeol
Hive, larva
Decoction and infusion
18.18

Vespa crabro flavofasciata Cameron
A68
JNP
Malbeol
Hive, larva
Decoction and infusion
12.90

Vespa simillima simillima Smith
A70
JNP
Teolbomalbeol
Hive
Decoction and infusion
18.18

Plant
Asteraceae
Artemisia princeps Pamp.
P17
JNP
Ssuk
Leaf
Tea
0.32

Acrididae
Anapodisma beybienkoi Rentz and Miller
A5
JNP
Palgongsanmitdeurimettugi
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Arcyptera coreana Shiraki
A9
JNP
Chameorisapsari
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Chorthippus nakazimai Furukawa
A17
JNP
Suyeomchireaemettugi
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Gastrimargus marmoratus Thunberg
A26
JNP
Kongjungi
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Locusta migratoria L.
A32
JNP
Pulmuchi
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Megaulacobothrus aethalinus Zubowsky
A34
JNP
Cheongnalgaeaemettugi
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Mongolotettix japonicus Bolivar
A36
JNP
Sapsari
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Ognevia longipennis Shiraki
A38
JNP
Ginnalgaemitdeurimettugi
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Ognevia sergii Ikonnikovi Rehn and Rehni
A39
JNP
Wonsanmitdeurimettugi
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Oxya japonica japonica Thunberg
A40
JNP
Byeomettugi
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Patanga japonica Bolivar
A43
JNP
Gaksimettugi
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Animal
Shirakiacris shirakii Bolivar
A58
JNP
Deunggeomeunmettugi
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Stethophyma magister Rehn
A59
JNP
Kkeutgeomeunmettugi
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Gryllidae
Teleogryllus emma Ohmachi and Matsumura
A63
JNP
Wanggwitturami
Whole part
Powder
100.00

Megascolecidae
Lumbricus rubellus Hoffmeister
A33
JNP
Jireongi
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Phasianidae
Gallus gallus domesticus L.
A25
GNP
Dak
Egg
Infusion
6.49

Pyrgomorphidae
Atractomorpha lata Motschulsky
A10
JNP
Seomseogumettugi
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Ranidae
Rana coreana Okada
A48
JNP
Hanguksangaeguri
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Rana huanrenensis Fei, Ye, and Huang
A49
JNP
Gyegoksangaeguri
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Rana nigromaculata Okada
A50
JNP
Chamgaeguri
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Rana temporaria dybowskii Shannon
A51
JNP
Bukbangsangaeguri
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Suidae
Sus scrofa L.
A62
JNP
Dwaeji
Hide
Infusion
10.00

Diarrhea

Tubificidae
Limnodrilus gotoi Hatai
A31
JNP
Siljireongi
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Vespidae
Vespa mandarinia Cameron
A69
JNP
Jangsumalbeol
Hive, imago, and larva
Decoction
100.00

Fungi
Ramariaceae
Ramaria botrytis (Pers.) Ricken
F4
GNP
Ssaribeoseot
Whole part
Infusion
100.00

Anacardiaceae
Rhus verniciflua Stokes
P107
GNP
Onnamu
Stem
Burn, dissolution, powder,
2.86

Araceae
Pinellia ternata (Thunb.) Breitenb.
P81
JNP
Banha
Corm
Decoction
50.00

Asteraceae
Artemisia princeps Pamp.
P17
GNP, HNP, JNP
Ssuk
Aerial part, leaf, stem, root, and whole part
Decoction, extraction, infusion, juice, and moxibustion
20.90

Taraxacum platycarpum Dahlst.
P125
JNP
Mindeulle
Whole part
Juice
14.29

Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea batatas Decne.
P39
HNP
Ma
Root
Infusion, raw
6.67

Ebenaceae
Diospyros kaki Thunb.
P41
GNP, HNP, JNP
Gamnamu
Fruit and peduncle
Decoction, dried persimmon, infusion, and raw
30.40

Geraniaceae
Geranium thunbergii Siebold and Zucc.
P49
HNP
Ijilpul
Whole part
Decoction
15.38

Lamiaceae
Leonurus japonicus Houtt.
P61
JNP
Ingmocho
Aerial part
Infusion
3.23

Liliaceae
Allium fistulosum L.
P9
JNP
Pa
Root
Infusion
100.00

Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Spreng.
P12
JNP
Buchu
Whole part
Infusion
100.00

Malvaceae
Hibiscus hamabo Siebold and Zucc.
P53
HNP
Hwanggeun
Root
Decoction
100.00

Papaveraceae
Papaver somniferum L.
P74
GNP, JNP
Yanggwibi
Fruit, stem, and whole part
Decoction and dissolution
16.67

Plant
Pinaceae
Pinus densiflora Siebold and Zucc.
P82
JNP
Sonamu
Endodermis
Infusion
100.00

Plantaginaceae
Plantago asiatica L.
P84
HNP
Jilgyeongi
Whole part
Decoction
6.90

Poaceae
Oryza sativa var. terrestis Makino
P73
HNP
Sandu
Seed
Porridge
76.92

Triticum aestivum L.
P129
JNP
Mil
Seed
dissolution
7.69

Polygonaceae
Rheum rhabarbarum L.
P104
HNP
Daehwang
Root
Decoction
100.00

Rumex acetosa L.
P113
HNP
Suyeong
Root
Decoction
100.00

Portulacaceae
Portulaca oleracea L.
P90
GNP
Soebireum
Aerial part
Seasoned cooked vegetables, seasoned with condiments
100.00

Ranunculaceae
Clematis trichotoma Nakai
P33
JNP
Halmimilmang
Root
Decoction
100.00

Thalictrum aquilegifolium var. sibiricum Regel and Tiling
P126
JNP
Kkwonguidari
Leaf and stem
Decoction
50.00

Rutaceae
Zanthoxylum schinifolium Siebold and Zucc.
P138
GNP
Sanchonamu
Fruit
Oil
17.86

Violaceae
Viola mandshurica W. Becker
P131
JNP
Jebikkot
Whole part
Decoction
100.00

Animal
Phasianidae
Gallus gallus domesticus L.
A25
GNP
Dak
Egg
Infusion
5.19

Asteraceae
Artemisia princeps Pamp.
P17
GNP, HNP
Ssuk
Aerial part, leaf, and whole part
Infusion, juice, and moxibustion
6.11

Fabaceae
Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.
P51
JNP
Gamcho
Root
Decoction and tea
15.38

Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi
P97
JNP
Chik
Root
Decoction
0.76

Dysentery
Plant
Geraniaceae
Geranium thunbergii Siebold and Zucc.
P49
JNP
Ijilpul
Leaf
Decoction
7.69

Polygonaceae
Rheum rhabarbarum L.
P104
JNP
Daehwang
Root
Decoction and tea
100.00

Rosaceae
Sanguisorba officinalis L.
P115
GNP
Oipul
Whole part
Infusion
66.67

Violaceae
Viola verecunda A. Gray
P132
GNP
Kongjebikkot
Leaf
Seasoned cooked vegetables
100.00

Enteritis
Plant
Ranunculaceae
Thalictrum aquilegifolium var. sibiricum Regel and Tiling
P126
JNP
Kkwonguidari
Leaf, stem
Decoction
50.00

Enterotoxin
Plant
Campanulaceae
Adenophora triphylla var. japonica (Regel) H. Hara
P6
HNP
Jandae
Root
Warm up in a double boiler
100.00

Cucurbitaceae
Cucurbita moschata Duchesne
P36
HNP
Hobak
Fruit
Warm up in a double boiler
9.09

Gastralgia
Plant
Asteraceae
Artemisia princeps Pamp.
P17
HNP
Ssuk
Young leaf
Juice
1.61

Formicidae
Formica yessensis Forel
A24
JNP
Bulgaemi
Whole part
Decoction
100.00

Hominidae
Homo sapiens L.
A29
JNP
Saram
Bone
Burn, pill, and powder
100.00

Animal
Muridae
Rattus norvegicus Berkenhout
A52
JNP
Jipjwi
Young rat
Fermentation
100.00

Phasianidae
Gallus gallus domesticus L.
A25
JNP
Dak
Whole part
Decoction
1.30

Scolopendridae
Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans L. Koch
A54
JNP
Jine
Whole part
Decoction
100.00

Gastric cancer
Fungi
Tricholomataceae
Tricholoma matsutake (S. Ito. and Imai) Sing.
F6
JNP
Songi
Whole part
Infusion
100.00

Plant
Asteraceae
Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.
P19
JNP
Sapju
Root
Decoction
1.52

Fabaceae
Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.
P51
JNP
Gamcho
Root
Decoction and roast
7.69

Poaceae
Hordeum vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Asch.
P54
JNP
Bori
Seed
Decoction and roast
0.69

Rutaceae
Citrus unshiu S. Marcov.
P30
JNP
Gyul
Pericarp
Decoction
50.00

Poncirus trifoliata Raf.
P88
JNP
Taengjanamu
Fruit
Decoction
33.33

Ulmaceae
Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai
P130
HNP, JNP
Neureumnamu
Rhizodermis and root bark
Decoction
3.09

Gastric ulcer
Plant
Asteraceae
Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.
P19
JNP
Sapju
Root
Decoction
1.52

Poaceae
Hordeum vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Asch.
P54
GNP, JNP
Bori
Malt, seed
A sweet drink made from fermented rice, powder, roast, and steam
2.07

Ulmaceae
Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai
P130
GNP, JNP
Neureumnamu
Bark
A sweet drink made from fermented rice, decoction, infusion, and tea
11.73

Anacardiaceae
Rhus verniciflua Stokes
P107
GNP
Onnamu
Bark
Simmer
2.86

Asteraceae
Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.
P19
GNP
Sapju
Root
A sweet drink made from fermented rice and powder
6.06

Ericaceae
Rhododendron mucronulatum Turcz. var. mucronulatum
P105
JNP
Jindallae
Flower
Panfried
66.67

Poaceae
Hordeum vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Asch.
P54
GNP
Bori
Malt, seed
A sweet drink made from fermented rice
1.38

Gastritis
Plant
Ranunculaceae
Clematis terniflora var. mandshurica (Rupr.) Ohwi
P32
HNP
Euari
Root
Taffy
57.14

Rosaceae
Rosa multiflora Thunb. var. multiflora
P111
JNP
Jjillekkot
Flower, fruit
Decoction, panfried
87.50

Rutaceae
Citrus unshiu S. Marcov.
P30
JNP
Gyul
Pericarp
Decoction
25.00

Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC.
P137
GNP
Chopinamu
Fruit
Oil
57.15

Ulmaceae
Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai
P130
GNP
Neureumnamu
Bark
A sweet drink made from fermented rice
1.23

Apidae
Apis cerana Fabricius
A7
GNP
Jaeraekkulbeol
Honey
Dissolution and raw
93.10

Apis mellifera L.
A8
GNP, JNP
Yangbongkkulbeol
Hive, honey, larva, whole part
Decoction, dissolution, power, and raw
90.00

Blattellidae
Blattella germanica L.
A11
JNP
Bakwi
Whole part
Panbroiled and powder
100.00

Cervidae
Capreolus capreolus L.
A13
JNP
Noru
Bone
Simmer
100.00

Capreolus pygargus tianschanicus Satunin
A14
HNP
Noru
Bone
Simmer
100.00

Colubridae
Dinodon rufozonatumrufozonatum Cantor
A19
JNP
Neunggureongi
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Elaphe dione Pallas
A20
JNP
Nurukbaem
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Elaphe rufodorsata Cantor
A21
JNP
Mujachi
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Elaphe schrenckii Strauch
A22
JNP
Gureongi
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Gloydius ussuriensis Emelianov
A27
JNP
Soesalmosa
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Rhabdophis tigrinus tigrinus Boie
A53
JNP
Yuhyeolmogi
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Columbidae
Streptopelia orientalis Latham
A60
JNP
Metbidulgi
Whole part
Simmer
66.67

Cyprinidae
Carassius auratus L.
A15
JNP
Bungeo
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Animal
Erinaceidae
Erinaceus amurensis Schrenk
A23
GNP
Goseumdochi
Whole part
Infusion
100.00

Gryllotalpidae
Gryllotalpa orientalis Burmeister
A28
JNP
Ttanggangaji
Whole part
Powder
16.67

Mytilidae
Mytilus coruscus Gould
A37
HNP
Honghap
Whole part
Decoction
100.00

Phasianidae
Gallus gallus domesticus L.
A25
GNP, HNP, JNP
Dak
Dung, whole part
Infusion, panbroiled, steep
61.04

Phasianus colchicus L.
A44
JNP
Kkwong
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Pleuroceridae
Semisulcospira coreana Von Martens
A55
JNP
Chamdaseulgi
Whole part
Juice, panbroiled, powder, and simmer
90.91

Semisulcospira forticosta Von Martens
A56
JNP
Jureumdaseulgi
Whole part
Juice, panbroiled, powder, and simmer
91.67

Semisulcospira libertina Gould
A57
JNP
Daseulgi
Whole part
Juice, panbroiled, powder, and simmer
91.67

Sphingidae
Agrius convolvuli L.
A4
JNP
Bakgaksi
Whole part
Infusion, maceration, and powder
100.00

Suidae
Sus scrofa L.
A61
JNP
Dwaeji
Gallbladder
Dried, mixed in liquor, pill, and simmer
30.00

Vespidae
Vespula flaviceps lewisii Cameron
A71
JNP
Ttangbeol
Hive, larva
Brewing and decoction
100.00

Gloydius blomhoffii brevicaudus Stejneger
A2
JNP
Salmosa
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Gloydius saxatilis Emelianov
A3
JNP
Kkachisalmosa
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Fungi
Ganodermataceae
Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst.
F2
JNP
Yeongji
Whole part
Infusion
11.11

Aceraceae
Acer pictum subsp. mono (Maxim.) Ohashi
P1
JNP
Gorosoenamu
Sap
Raw
100.00

Actinidiaceae
Actinidia arguta (Siebold and Zucc.) Planch. ex Miq.
P4
JNP
Darae
Stem
Decoction
33.33

Actinidia polygama (Siebold and Zucc.) Planch. ex Maxim.
P5
JNP
Gaedarae
Stem
A sweet drink made from fermented rice
100.00

Anacardiaceae
Rhus verniciflua Stokes
P107
GNP, HNP, JNP
Onnamu
Bark, resin, stem, young leaf
Decoction, dissolution, extraction, infusion, raw, and simmer
72.14

Apocynaceae
Trachelospermum asiaticum (Siebold and Zucc.) Nakai var. asiaticum
P127
JNP
Masakjul
Leaf, stem
Decoction
100.00

Araliaceae
Aralia cordata var. continentalis (Kitag.) Y.C.Chu
P14
GNP
Dokhwal
Root
Maceration, mixed in liquor
60.00

Kalopanax septemlobus (Thunb.) Koidz.
P60
GNP
Eumnamu
Stem
A sweet drink made from fermented rice and brewing
93.33

Asteraceae
Artemisia capillaris Thunb.
P16
GNP
Sacheolssuk
Whole part
A sweet drink made from fermented rice, pill, and taffy
80.00

Artemisia princeps Pamp.
P17
GNP, HNP
Ssuk
Leaf, whole part
Decoction, infusion, juice, moxibustion, and powder
12.22

Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.
P19
GNP, JNP
Sapju
Root
A sweet drink made from fermented rice, decoction, dried, dissolution, infusion, pill, and powder
68.94

Cirsium japonicum var. maackii (Maxim.) Matsum.
P28
GNP, HNP
Eonggeongkwi
Root
Decoction and juice
60.00

Petasites japonicus (Siebold and Zucc.) Maxim.
P78
GNP
Meowi
Leaf and stem
Infusion, wrapped in leaves, seasoned cooked vegetables
100.00

Taraxacum platycarpum Dahlst.
P125
HNP, JNP
Mindeulle
Aerial part and whole part
Decoction, infusion, and tea
85.71

Xanthium strumarium L.
P136
GNP
Dokkomari
Whole part
A sweet drink made from fermented rice and brewing
100.00

Cactaceae
Opuntia ficus-indica var. saboten Makino
P71
HNP
Sonbadakseoninjang
Stem
Raw
66.67

Caprifoliaceae
Lonicera japonica Thunb.
P64
HNP
Indongdeonggul
Flower
Decoction
33.33

Celastraceae
Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Siebold
P43
GNP, JNP
Hwasallamu
Leaf and stem
Decoction, seasoned cooked vegetables
40.54

Euonymus hamiltonianus Wall. var. hamiltonianus
P44
JNP
Chambitsallamu
Stem
Infusion
100.00

Gastroenteric trouble

Crassulaceae
Sedum sarmentosum Bunge
P118
GNP
Dollamul
Whole part
Watery plain kimchi
100.00

Cucurbitaceae
Cucurbita moschata Duchesne
P36
GNP
Hobak
Fruit
Infusion
90.91

Trichosanthes kirilowii var. japonica Kitam.
P128
HNP
Noranghaneultari
Sap
Sap
100.00

Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea batatas Decne.
P39
GNP, JNP
Ma
Root
Decoction, maceration, oil, and raw
90.00

Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea japonica Thunb.
P40
GNP
Chamma
Root
Raw
100.00

Ebenaceae
Diospyros kaki Thunb.
P41
GNP
Gamnamu
peduncle
Infusion
8.00

Ericaceae
Rhododendron mucronulatum Turcz. var. mucronulatum
P105
JNP
Jindallae
Flower
Extraction
33.33

Euphorbiaceae
Ricinus communis L.
P109
JNP
Pimaja
Seed
Oil
0.83

Fabaceae
Caragana sinica (Buc’hoz) Rehder
P23
GNP
Goldamcho
Root
A sweet drink made from fermented rice
100.00

Glycine max (L.) Merr.
P50
GNP, JNP
Kong
Seed
Dissolution and fermentation
37.65

Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.
P51
GNP, HNP, JNP
Gamcho
Root
Decoction
30.77

Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi
P97
GNP, HNP, JNP
Chik
Root
Boiled rice, brewing, decoction, infusion, juice, and maceration
46.21

Sophora flavescens Solander ex Aiton
P122
GNP, HNP
Gosam
Fruit, root
Decoction, infusion, and raw
68.75

Lamiaceae
Leonurus japonicus Houtt.
P61
HNP
Ingmocho
Aerial part
Decoction
6.45

Plant
Perilla frutescens var. japonica (Hassk.) Hara
P77
GNP
Deulkkae
Seed
Seasoned cooked vegetables
36.36

Salvia plebeia R.Br.
P114
GNP, JNP
Baeamchajeugi
Leaf, whole part
Decoction and infusion
50.00

Lauraceae
Machilus thunbergii Siebold and Zucc.
P66
HNP
Hubangnamu
Bark
Decoction
75.00

Liliaceae
Allium scorodoprasum var. viviparum Regel
P11
HNP
Maneul
Bulb
Decoction
21.43

Polygonatum odoratum var. pluriflorum (Miq.) Ohwi
P87
HNP
Dunggulle
Root
Tea
40.00

Meliaceae
Melia azedarach L.
P68
HNP
Meolguseulnamu
Root bark
Taffy
5.26

Menispermaceae
Cocculus trilobus (Thunb.) DC.
P34
GNP
Daengdaengideonggul
Root, stem
Infusion and maceration
78.05

Moraceae
Morus bombycis Koidz. var. bombycis
P70
JNP
Sanppongnamu
Root
Decoction and infusion
100.00

Oleaceae
Ligustrum obtusifolium Siebold and Zucc.
P62
JNP
Jwittongnamu
Fruit
Decoction
100.00

Orchidaceae
Gastrodia elata Blume
P46
JNP
Cheonma
Tuber
Porridge
100.00

Papaveraceae
Papaver somniferum L.
P74
HNP
Yanggwibi
Latex
Extraction
0.79

Pinaceae
Pinus koraiensis Siebold and Zucc.
P83
JNP
Jannamu
Seed
Raw
100.00

Plantaginaceae
Plantago asiatica L.
P84
GNP, HNP
Jilgyeongi
Leaf, petiole, whole part
Decoction
72.41

Poaceae
Hordeum vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Asch.
P54
GNP, JNP
Bori
Malt, seed
A sweet drink made from fermented rice, pill, and taffy
33.79

Triticum aestivum L.
P129
GNP
Mil
Seed
A sweet drink made from fermented rice and brewing
50.00

Ranunculaceae
Aconitum ciliare DC.
P2
JNP
Notjeotgarangnamul
Root
Infusion and pill
14.29

Clematis florida Thunb.
P31
JNP
Wiryeongseon
Root
Decoction
100.00

Clematis terniflora var. mandshurica (Rupr.) Ohwi
P32
HNP
Euari
Root
Decoction
42.86

Pulsatilla koreana (Yabe ex Nakai) Nakai ex Nakai
P98
GNP, JNP
Halmikkot
Root
A sweet drink made from fermented rice, grain syrup, and infusion
41.79

Rhamnaceae
Ziziphus jujuba var. inermis (Bunge) Rehder
P142
GNP, HNP
Daechunamu
Fruit
Infusion, simmer
100.00

Rosaceae
Prunus mume Siebold and Zucc.
P94
JNP
Maesillamu
Fruit
Extraction
2.99

Rosa davurica Pall.
P110
JNP
Saengyeolgwinamu
Fruit
Brewing
100.00

Sanguisorba officinalis L.
P115
HNP
Oipul
Root
Decoction
11.11

Rutaceae
Phellodendron amurense Rupr.
P79
HNP
Hwangbyeongnamu
Inner layer of bark
Decoction
15.38

Zanthoxylum schinifolium Siebold and Zucc.
P138
JNP
Sanchonamu
Seed
Oil
21.43

Salicaceae
Populus maximowiczii A. Henry
P89
GNP
Hwangcheollamu
Endodermis
Infusion
100.00

Saururaceae
Houttuynia cordata Thunb.
P55
HNP
Yangmomil
Whole part
Decoction
100.00

Saururus chinensis (Lour.) Baill.
P116
HNP
Sambaekcho
Whole part
Infusion
50.00

Schisandraceae
Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill.
P117
HNP
Omija
Fruit, root, stem
Brewing
33.33

Scrophulariaceae
Rehmannia glutinosa (Gaertn.) Libosch. ex Steud.
P103
JNP
Jihwang
Root
Brewing
100.00

Solanaceae
Lycium chinense Mill.
P65
GNP, HNP
Gugijanamu
Fruit
Decoction and tea
100.00

Ulmaceae
Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai
P130
GNP, HNP, JNP
Neureumnamu
Bark, leaf, endodermis, rhizodermis, root, stem
A sweet drink made from fermented rice, boiling, decoction, dried, infusion, powder, simmer, and tea
71.60

Zingiberaceae
Curcuma longa L.
P38
JNP
Ulgeum
Root
Tea
100.00

Zingiber officinale Roscoe
P140
HNP
Saenggang
Rhizome
Simmer
100.00

Gastroptosis
Plant
Asteraceae
Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.
P19
JNP
Sapju
Root
Decoction
0.76

Gentianaceae
Gentiana scabra Bunge
P47
JNP
Yongdam
Root
Tea
4.00

Poaceae
Hordeum vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Asch.
P54
JNP
Bori
Seed
Powder, roast, and steam
0.69

Heartburn
Plant
Asteraceae
Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.
P19
GNP
Sapju
Root
Powder
2.27

Celastraceae
Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Siebold
P43
GNP
Hwasallamu
Leaf, stem
Decoction and seasoned cooked vegetables
29.73

Rosaceae
Potentilla chinensis Ser.
P91
GNP
Ttakjikkot
Root
Infusion and raw
50.00

Prunus mume Siebold and Zucc.
P94
GNP
Maesillamu
Fruit
Extraction
3.73

Ulmaceae
Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai
P130
GNP
Neureumnamu
Bark
Tea
1.85

Hema feces
Animal
Anguillidae
Anguilla japonica Temminck and Schlegel
A6
JNP
Baemjangeo
Whole part
Simmer
50.00

Cetonia pilifera Motschulsky
A16
JNP
Kkonmuji
Larva
Brewing
100.00

Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis Kolbe
A46
JNP
Huinjeombagikkonmuji
Larva
Brewing
100.00

Protaetia mandschuriensis Schurhoff
A47
JNP
Manjujeombagikkonmuji
Larva
Brewing
100.00

Plant
Rosaceae
Rosa rugosa Thunb. var. rugosa
P112
JNP
Haedanghwa
Leaf, root
Decoction
100.00

Hematemesis
Plant
Theaceae
Camellia japonica L.
P21
JNP
Dongbaengnamu
Fruit
Decoction
20.00

Hookworm
Plant
Araceae
Pinellia ternata (Thunb.) Breitenb.
P81
JNP
Banha
Corm
Decoction
50.00

Meliaceae
Melia azedarach L.
P68
HNP
Meolguseulnamu
Fruit, leaf, root bark
Decoction, taffy
26.32

Alga
Gelidiaceae
Gelidium amansii J. V. Lamour.
AL1
HNP
Umutgasari
Thallus
Decoction
100.00

Animal
Cobitidae
Misgurnus mizolepis Günther
A35
GNP
Mikkuraji
Whole part
Raw
100.00

Gadidae
Theragra chalcogramma Pallas
A66
JNP
Myeongtae
Whole part
Decoction
100.00

Mantidae
Tenodera angustipennis Saussure
A64
JNP
Samagwi
Whole part
Powder
50.00

Tenodera sinensis Saussure
A65
GNP, JNP
Wangsamagwi
Whole part
Infusion, powder
50.00

Octopodidae
Paroctopus dofleini Wulker
A42
JNP
Muneo
Whole part
Simmer
100.00

Pleuroceridae
Semisulcospira coreana Von Martens
A55
JNP
Chamdaseulgi
Whole part
Simmer
9.09

Semisulcospira forticosta Von Martens
A56
JNP
Jureumdaseulgi
Whole part
Simmer
8.33

Semisulcospira libertina Gould
A57
JNP
Daseulgi
Whole part
Simmer
8.33

Sergestidae
Acetes japonicus Kishinouye
A1
GNP
Jeotsaeu
Whole part
Fermentation
100.00

Fungi
Ganodermataceae
Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst.
F2
GNP
Yeongji
Whole part
Infusion
66.67

Polyporaceae
Fomes fomentarius (L.: Fr.) Fr.
F1
JNP
Malgupbeoseot
Whole part
Decoction
33.33

Thelephoraceae
Sarcodon aspratus (Berk.) S. Ito
F5
JNP
Neungi
Whole part
Decoction, seasoned cooked vegetables, soup
100.00

Amaranthaceae
Amaranthus mangostanus L.
P13
JNP
Bireum
Leaf
Dried persimmon, infusion
100.00

Anacardiaceae
Rhus verniciflua Stokes
P107
GNP, JNP
Onnamu
Stem
Infusion
10.71

Araliaceae
Aralia cordata var. continentalis (Kitag.) Y. C. Chu
P14
JNP
Dokhwal
Root
Decoction, tea
10.00

Aralia elata (Miq.) Seem.
P15
JNP
Dureumnamu
Root
Infusion
100.00

Kalopanax septemlobus (Thunb.) Koidz.
P60
GNP
Eumnamu
Stem
Infusion
6.67

Aristolochiaceae
Asarum sieboldii Miq.
P18
JNP
Jokdoripul
Root
Infusion, pill
100.00

Aspleniaceae
Pteridium aquilinum var. latiusculum (Desv.) Underw. ex Hell.
P96
JNP
Gosari
Root
Decoction, infusion
100.00

Asteraceae
Artemisia capillaris Thunb.
P16
GNP
Sacheolssuk
Leaf, stem
Decoction
20.00

Artemisia princeps Pamp.
P17
GNP, JNP
Ssuk
Leaf, root, whole part
Juice
7.72

Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.
P19
GNP, JNP
Sapju
Root
Brewing, decoction, infusion, panbroiled, pill, powder
18.18

Helianthus annuus L.
P52
JNP
Haebaragi
Flower
Decoction
100.00

Inula helenium L.
P57
JNP
Mokhyang
Root
Decoction
100.00

Balsaminaceae
Impatiens balsamina L.
P56
GNP, JNP
Bongseonhwa
Flower, root, whole part
Infusion
100.00

Betulaceae
Betula costata Trautv.
P20
GNP
Geojesunamu
Sap
Raw
100.00

Bignoniaceae
Catalpa ovata G. Don
P26
GNP
Gaeodong
Stem
Infusion
100.00

Boraginaceae
Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold and Zucc.
P63
GNP
Jichi
Root
Panbroiled, steep
88.89

Caprifoliaceae
Lonicera japonica Thunb.
P64
JNP
Indongdeonggul
Stem
Infusion
66.67

Cyperaceae
Carex curta Gooden.
P24
JNP
Sansacho
Fruit
Decoction
100.00

Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea batatas Decne.
P39
JNP
Ma
Root
Decoction
3.33

Ebenaceae
Diospyros kaki Thunb.
P41
GNP, JNP
Gamnamu
Fruit, peduncle
Dried persimmon, infusion, raw
59.20

Indigestion

Euphorbiaceae
Ricinus communis L.
P109
GNP, JNP
Pimaja
Fruit, seed
Oil, panfried
54.55

Fabaceae
Glycine max (L.) Merr.
P50
JNP
Kong
Seed
Fermentation, dissolution
38.82

Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi
P97
GNP
Chik
Root
Clear soup with flour dumplings, juice, tea
27.27

Rhynchosia volubilis Lour.
P108
JNP
Jwinunikong
Seed
Decoction
100.00

Sophora flavescens Solander ex Aiton
P122
JNP
Gosam
Root
Decoction, infusion, juice, maceration, panbroiled
25.00

Fagaceae
Castanea crenata Siebold and Zucc.
P25
GNP, JNP
Bamnamu
Bark, nut
Infusion, tea
100.00

Lamiaceae
Leonurus japonicus Houtt.
P61
JNP
Ingmocho
Aerial part
Juice
1.61

Perilla frutescens var. acuta Kudo
P76
JNP
Soyeop
Leaf
Decoction
100.00

Plant
Lardizabalaceae
Akebia quinata (Houtt.) Decne.
P8
JNP
Eureumdeonggul
Stem
Infusion
14.29

Lauraceae
Machilus thunbergii Siebold and Zucc.
P66
JNP
Hubangnamu
Bark
Decoction
25.00

Liliaceae
Allium microdictyon Prokh.
P10
JNP
Sanmaneul
Root
Decoction
50.00

Polygonatum odoratum var. pluriflorum (Miq.) Ohwi
P87
JNP
Dunggulle
Root
Tea
20.00

Loranthaceae
Viscum album var. coloratum (Kom.) Ohwi
P133
JNP
Gyeousari
Whole part
A sweet drink made from fermented rice
100.00

Menispermaceae
Cocculus trilobus (Thunb.) DC.
P34
GNP
Daengdaengideonggul
Root
Juice
9.76

Moraceae
Cudrania tricuspidata (Carr.) Bureau ex Lavallee
P37
JNP
Kkujippongnamu
Root
Decoction
100.00

Phytolaccaceae
Phytolacca esculenta VanHoutte
P80
GNP, JNP
Jarigong
Root
A sweet drink made from fermented rice, infusion
35.29

Poaceae
Hordeum vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Asch.
P54
GNP, HNP, JNP
Bori
Malt, seed
A sweet drink made from fermented rice, brewing, decoction, dissolution, infusion, juice, maceration, steep, tea
55.86

Oryza sativa L.
P72
GNP
Byeo
Stem
Infusion
57.14

Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv.
P119
HNP
Jo
Seed
A sweet drink made from fermented rice
100.00

Triticum aestivum L.
P129
GNP
Mil
Seed
Brewing, clear soup with flour dumplings, extraction
38.46

Ranunculaceae
Aconitum ciliare DC.
P2
JNP
Notjeotgarangnamul
Root
Decoction, infusion, pill
85.71

Pulsatilla koreana (Yabe ex Nakai) Nakai ex Nakai
P98
JNP
Halmikkot
Root
Grain syrup
5.97

Rosaceae
Malus sieboldii (Regel) Rehder
P67
JNP
Ageubaenamu
Fruit
Decoction, infusion
100.00

Prunus armeniaca var. ansu Maxim.
P92
GNP, JNP
Salgunamu
Seed
Maceration, raw
100.00

Prunus mume Siebold and Zucc.
P94
GNP, HNP, JNP
Maesillamu
Fruit
Brewing, dissolution, extraction
49.25

Pyrus pyrifolia (Burm. f.) Nakai
P100
JNP
Dolbaenamu
Fruit
Brewing
100.00

Pyrus pyrifolia var. culta (Makino) Nakai
P101
GNP
Baenamu
Fruit
Infusion
100.00

Rosa multiflora Thunb. var. multiflora
P111
JNP
Jjillekkot
Fruit
Decoction
12.50

Spiraea prunifolia f. simpliciflora Nakai
P124
GNP
Jopamnamu
Root, stem
Infusion
100.00

Rutaceae
Citrus unshiu S. Marcov.
P30
JNP
Gyul
Pericarp
Decoction
25.00

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.
P79
GNP
Hwangbyeongnamu
Bark, endodermis
Infusion, steep
76.92

Poncirus trifoliata Raf.
P88
HNP, JNP
Taengjanamu
Fruit
Decoction, simmer
66.67

Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC.
P137
HNP, JNP
Chopinamu
Fruit
Decoction, oil
42.86

Zanthoxylum schinifolium Siebold and Zucc.
P138
GNP, JNP
Sanchonamu
Fruit, seed
Oil
25.00

Scrophulariaceae
Paulownia coreana Uyeki
P75
GNP
Odongnamu
Stem
Infusion
100.00

Solanaceae
Solanum nigrum L.
P121
GNP, JNP
Kkamajung
Aerial part, fruit, leaf, root, whole part
Dried, infusion, juice
88.24

Theaceae
Camellia sinensis L.
P22
JNP
Chanamu
Leaf
Decoction
100.00

Ulmaceae
Celtis sinensis Pers.
P27
HNP
Paengnamu
Fruit
Dried, powder
100.00

Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai
P130
GNP
Neureumnamu
Bark
A sweet drink made from fermented rice, infusion
8.64

Intestinal disease
Plant
Asteraceae
Cirsium japonicum var. spinossimum Kitam.
P29
HNP
Gasieonggeongkwi
Root
Decoction
100.00

Rosaceae
Sorbus commixta Hedl.
P123
JNP
Magamok
Fruit
Brewing
100.00

Stomach

cramp
Animal
Phasianidae
Gallus gallus domesticus L.
A25
JNP
Dak
Whole part
Simmer
1.30

Plant
Ranunculaceae
Pulsatilla koreana (Yabe ex Nakai) Nakai ex Nakai
P98
HNP
Halmikkot
Leaf
Rubbing
7.46

Stomach problem
Animal
Phasianidae
Gallus gallus domesticus L.
A25
JNP
Dak
Whole part
Simmer
1.30

Asteraceae
Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.
P19
GNP
Sapju
Root
Powder
2.27

Celastraceae
Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Siebold
P43
GNP
Hwasallamu
Leaf, stem
Decoction, seasoned cooked vegetables
29.73

Poaceae
Oryza sativa var. terrestis Makino
P73
HNP
Sandu
Seed
Porridge
7.69

Plant
Rosaceae
Potentilla chinensis Ser.
P91
GNP
Ttakjikkot
Root
Infusion, raw
50.00

Prunus mume Siebold and Zucc.
P94
GNP
Maesillamu
Fruit
Extraction
3.73

Ulmaceae
Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai
P130
GNP
Neureumnamu
Bark
Tea
1.85

Stomachic

Liliaceae
Allium microdictyon Prokh.
P10
JNP
Sanmaneul
Root
Decoction
50.00

Vomiting
Animal
Apidae
Apis cerana Fabricius
A7
GNP
Jaeraekkulbeol
Honey
Dissolution, raw
3.45

Plant
Verbenaceae
Vitex rotundifolia L.f.
P134
HNP
Sunbiginamu
Fruit
Decoction
100.00

*A: animal, P: plant, F: fungi, and AL: alga.

**Region: JNP: Jirisan National Park, GNP: Gayasan National Park, and HNP: Hallasan National Park.

Table 4: Analytic results of ethnomedicinal practices recorded in the three national parks.

Results
JNP
GNP
HNP
Total

Species
166
76
58
220

Therapies

(kinds)
272
176
92
490

Used parts
32
21
20
43

Preparations

(modes)
28
34
21
42

Disorders

(types)
20
11
16
24

A total of 490 ethnomedicinal practices recorded from the communities were classified into 110 families, 176 genera, and 220 species that included plants, animals, fungi, and alga (Table 4). Among these species, plants totaled 361 ethnomedicinal practices based on 142 species, while animals included 119 ethnomedicinal practices based on 71 species. Fungi recorded 9 ethnomedicinal practices based on six species while alga included one ethnomedicinal practice based on one species. These usage patterns were different from Korean traditional medicine, in which plants are used relatively much more than animals. Research confirms that communities have focused on the functional supplements from these ethnomedicinal practices rather than seeking after an actual cure for their gastrointestinal disorders.

The residents of these communities have applied the ethnomedicinal practices for gastroenteric trouble and indigestion more than any other disorder. Namely, the number of medicinal species and ethnomedicinal practices for gastroenteric trouble consisted of 94 species (42.7% of the total species) and 179 ethnomedicinal practices (36.5% of the total practices). Indigestion used 72 species (32.7% of the total species) and 131 ethnomedicinal practices (26.7% of the total practices) (Table 5).

Table 5: Number of times mentioned by informants and medicinal species for treating each disorder.

Diseases
JNP
GNP
HNP
Total

Number of times mentioned

(species)
Number of times mentioned

(species)
Number of times mentioned

(species)
Number of times mentioned

(species)

Abdominal pain
161 (21)
516 (32)
82 (16)
759 (59)

Acute gastroenteritis
41 (8)

6 (3)
47 (11)

Constipation
115 (15)
142 (3)
36 (4)
293 (20)

Deficiency of intestinal function
19 (5)

19 (5)

Diarrhea
111 (36)
87 (8)
39 (9)
237 (48)

Dysentery
6 (4)
42 (4)
3 (1)
51 (8)

Enteritis
2 (1)

2 (1)

Enterotoxin

2 (2)
2 (2)

Gastralgia

5 (1)
5 (1)

Gastric cancer
14 (12)

3 (1)
17 (12)

Gastric ulcer
3 (3)
20 (2)

23 (3)

Gastritis
12 (3)
20 (5)
4 (1)
36 (9)

Gastroenteric trouble
238 (54)
755 (35)
118 (30)
1,111 (94)

Gastroptosis
3 (3)

3 (3)

Heartburn

28 (5)

28 (5)

Hema feces
6 (5)

6 (5)

Hematemesis
1 (1)

1 (1)

Hookworm
1 (1)

5 (1)
6 (2)

Indigestion
302 (52)
829 (31)
21 (7)
1,152 (72)

Intestinal ailment
2 (1)

1 (1)
3 (2)

Stomach cramp
1 (1)

5 (1)
6 (2)

Stomach problem
6 (4)
28 (5)
2 (1)
31 (7)

Stomachic
1 (1)

1 (1)

Vomiting
1 (1)
1 (1)
4 (1)
5 (2)

Total
1,040 (166)
2,468 (76)
336 (58)
3,844 (220)

Also, the number of informants who mentioned gastroenteric trouble and cases of indigestion occupied 28.9%, which totaled 30.0% of the whole, respectively (Table 5). As a result, the communities tended to use ethnomedicinal practices to care for their overall health instead of as a cure for a long-term condition.

For plants, 29 used parts were used in practice, while 14 used parts of animals and one used part of fungi and alga were used in treatment. Preparations of the plants consisted of 41 kinds, with 16 preparations for animals, six preparations for fungi, and one preparation for alga (Table 4). These usage patterns are similar to previous research for other diseases [14–16].

3.3. Quantitative Analysis

3.3.1. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)

The informant consensus factor ranges from 0 to 1, where the increasing values indicate a higher rate of informant consensus among the category of disorders.

The category with the highest degree of consensus from the informants were enteritis and gastralgia (1.0), followed by indigestion (0.94), constipation (0.93), abdominal pain and gastroenteric trouble (0.92), and gastric ulcers (0.91). The lowest degree of consensus was for gastroptosis, enterotoxin, hema feces, and other disorders (Table 6). These results denote that ethnomedicinal practices have been applied more often to minor health issues related to gastrointestinal disorders.

Table 6: Informant consensus factor (ICF) of the communities of three national parks.

Disorders
JNP
GNP
HNP
Total

Abdominal pain
0.88
0.94
0.81
0.92

Acute gastroenteritis
0.83
−
0.60
0.78

Constipation
0.88
0.99
0.91
0.93

Deficiency of intestinal function
0.78
−
−
0.78

Diarrhea
0.68
0.92
0.79
0.80

Dysentery
0.40
0.93
1.00
0.86

Enteritis
1.00
−
−
1.00

Enterotoxin
−
−
+
+

Gastralgia
−
−
1.00
1.00

Gastric cancer
+
0.95
1.00
+

Gastric ulcer
+
−
−
0.91

Gastritis
0.82
0.79
1.00
0.77

Gastroenteric trouble
0.78
0.95
0.75
0.92

Gastroptosis
+
−
−
+

Heartburn
−
0.85
−
0.85

Hema feces
+
−
−
+

Hematemesis
+
−
−
+

Hookworm
+
−
1.00
0.80

Indigestion
0.83
0.96
0.70
0.94

Intestinal ailment
1.00
−
+
0.50

Stomach cramp
+
−
1.00
0.80

Stomach problem
0.40
0.85
1.00
0.80

Stomachic
+
−
−
+

Vomiting
−
+
1.00
0.75

−: Ailments were not mentioned in each national park.

+: Below 0.40.

Generally, people suffering from serious gastrointestinal disorders have been treated in the hospital using conventional medicine or Korean traditional medicine. However, ethnomedicinal practices have been used to cure minor disorders.

Comparative consideration to results of the ICF among the three national parks and the agreement of consensus (ICF value, 1.00) from the informants in HNP obtained eight disorders, which include dysentery, gastralgia, gastric cancer, gastritis, hookworm, stomach cramps, stomach problems, and vomiting, while JNP and GNP depicted only enteritis and constipation, respectively.

These results confirm that the people of HNP have nearly the same ethnomedicinal knowledge for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders because the communities have been isolated from other communities for many years.

3.3.2. Fidelity Level (FL)

The FL is useful for identifying the informants’ most preferred species in use for treating certain gastrointestinal disorders. This information reveals that the informants had a tendency to rely on one specific species for treating one specific disorder rather than for several different disorders. The FL values in this study varied from 1.0% to 100%.

Generally, a FL of 100% for a specific species indicates that all of the use-reports mentioned the same species for a specific treatment [41].

This study determined 71 species of plants with a FL of 100%, even without considering species that were mentioned more than two times (Table 3). Among them, plants with a FL of 100% in JNP totaled 52 species, followed by 40 species in GNP, and 23 species in HNP.

Disorders containing a higher number of species assessed to a FL of 100% were gastroenteric trouble (19 species) and cases of indigestion (22 species).

Special attention was given to important species (N, Np) with a FL above 100%, regarding the viewpoint of the number of times mentioned and the consensus level for the specific disorders, which include Spiraea prunifolia f. simpliciflora Nakai (224, 224), Impatiens balsamina L. as plants and Acetes japonicus Kishinouye (17, 17) as an animal cure for indigestion, Xanthium strumarium L. and Petasites japonicas (Siebold and Zucc.) Maxim. as plants used for curing gastroenteric trouble, Zinnia violacea Cav. and Platycarya strobilacea Siebold and Zucc. as plants used in treating abdominal pain, and Viola verecunda A. Gray as a plant used in treating dysentery (Table 3).

Through further study, these species possess a much higher potential in being used in the development of new functional supplements for treating specific gastrointestinal disorders.

3.3.3. INA between Gastrointestinal Disorders and Medicinal Species

INA has originally analyzed social phenomenon and trends through the internetwork of components [42]. Our research has attempted to analyze the interrelationship between gastrointestinal disorders and the medicinal species recorded in the communities.

Considering Figure 2 about the internetwork between disorders and the medicinal species within all communities of this study, all medicinal species are grouped in the center for indigestion, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and gastroenteric trouble (Figure 2(a)), respectively. This distribution pattern is similar to the results of JNP and GNP. However, in case of HNP, indigestion is separated from the main disorders groups. This difference caused that the communities of HNP have been separated from the land communities for a long period of time.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 2: Internetwork analysis (INA) of three national parks ((a) total, (b) JNP, (c) GNP, and (d) HNP). ∗Abbreviation form of each is explained in Table 3: A (animal), P (plant), F (fungi), AL (algae), □ (species), and ◯ (disorders).

In regard to the INA distribution map for JNP, the locations for the disorders of hema feces, intestinal disease, and hematemesis were fairly distinct from the four main disorders groups. Also, the cure for enteritis, hookworm, intestinal disease, stomach cramp, and stomachic is applied for only one medicinal species (Figure 2(b)).

In the case of GNP, gastritis, gastric ulcers, heartburn, and stomach problems were located as a distinct group separated from the four main disorder groups. Because this group consisted of minor stomach ailments having similar inclination, Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC., Potentilla chinensis Ser., Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Siebold, Atractylodes ovate (Thunb.) DC., and Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai worked as possible cures as they possessed a high possibility in containing the same components for treatment (Figure 2(c)).

Within HNP, indigestion, intestinal disease, vomiting, stomach cramps, and enterotoxin were individually distinct from the three main disorder groups. This distribution pattern suggests that the application width of medicinal species to treat each disorder is limited for treating each disorder relative to the other communities (Figure 2(d)).

4. Conclusion

This research is the first study in the world to analyze and compare the ethnomedicinal practices of communities for treating gastrointestinal disorders. As the research method of this study, comparative quantitative analysis will contribute to the availability of orally transmitted ethnomedicinal knowledge. Additionally, the results of this study are confirmed due to the results obtained through investigation by 507 informants within the 185 research sites.

From this research, the recording of 490 ethnomedicinal practices being applied to the use of 220 medicinal species to treat 24 gastrointestinal disorders was extremely valuable. Particularly, the present usage of various medicinal species displays evidence as to which ethnomedicinal practices are continuously transmitted within the communities. However, this present situation is not sustainable because the communities of these study areas consist of an aging society. It has become necessary for appropriate measures to be taken to conserve these ethnomedicinal practices.

Our research suggests that treatment for gastroenteric trouble and indigestion among the gastrointestinal disorders uses ethnomedicinal practices more than any other type of treatment, as the communities used 75.5% of all medicinal species for treating these two diseases, 63.3% of the total number of all ethnomedicinal practices, and mentioned by 58.9% of all informants. Also, these two disorders contained the highest numbers of medicinal species within a FL of 100%. Through further study, the ethnomedicinal practices for these conditions possess a much higher potential in being used in the development of new practices.

According to the number of medicinal species applied to ethnomedicinal practices and the number of disorders treated by these ethnomedicinal practices, the numbers of JNP were much higher than the other two national parks. It is inferred that the region of JNP was the original center of Korean traditional medicine.

On the other hand, the communities of HNP depict a higher degree of agreement in the consensus to ethnomedicinal practices. This data explains that the communities of HNP, as island people, were limited in their movement to other regions and strictly collected large amounts of independent ethnomedicinal knowledge, only sharing within their own communities, which was distinct from the inland communities.

These trends were confirmed by the results of the INA as the internetwork maps of JNP and GNP were similar, while the map of HNP was moderately different. These results are reflected by the three-dimensional patterns of the ethnomedicinal knowledge held within the communities of each national park.

More specifically, the use of INA as a tool of quantitative analysis in this study provides valuable internetwork maps between gastrointestinal disorders and medicinal species.

These maps are important data to understand the specific interrelationships between disease and ethnomedicinal practices in the intra- and intercommunities.

The authors believe that INA is a useful new tool for providing various interpretations to ethnomedicinal knowledge in the intra- and intercommunities. This study provides confidence in that the useful value of INA will extend beyond the existing understanding of ethnomedicinal knowledge for the future research of ethnomedicinal knowledge.

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.

Acknowledgments

The authors are very grateful to all informants of the study area for sharing their oral traditional knowledge during the fieldwork surveys.

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