This study documented ethnomedical knowledge of plants used for the treatment of tuberculosis (TB) and its related symptoms as practiced by the Jakun community of Kampung Peta, situated in Endau Rompin Johor National Park, Johor, Malaysia. Eight key informants were selected by snowball sampling technique and data about medicinal plants were collected by semistructured interviews, participatory observations, and focus group. Qualitative analysis was undertaken using thematic analysis. There were 23 species of plants (22 genera, 20 families) documented and herbarium specimens were deposited at the UTHM Herbarium.
Tuberculosis (TB) is a key global health problem [
Malaysia is ranked as the twelfth megadiverse country in the world due to its richness and endemism of flora and fauna [
Location of Endau Rompin Johor National Park and Kampung Peta [
The first documentation work about medicinal plants used by the Jakun community in Kampung Peta recorded 52 plants species used for minor common ailments [
This paper aims to document plants used for the treatment of TB and its related symptoms guided by ethnomedical knowledge of the Jakun community in Kampung Peta, Johor, south of Peninsular Malaysia. To the best of our knowledge, no previous ethnomedical study had been conducted specifically for treatment of TB from this community. The new information gained from this study might initiate further studies to aim at exploring the anti-TB potentials of the plants, supporting the sustainability of traditional herbal medicine in local community, and conserving plants diversity.
Following ethical guidelines from [
Fieldworks were conducted between April 2013 and April 2014. Key informants were recruited using snowball sampling method [
Characteristics of the selected key informants in Kampung Peta.
Code | Gender | Age | Marital status | Belief | Knowledge gained from | Duration of practice | Education level | Occupation |
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R1 | F | 66 | Widowed | A | S, O, P, and H | Since small | Primary school | Retired park staff, farmer |
R2 | F | 57 | Married | A | S, O, P, and H | Since small | No formal education | Retired park staff, farmer |
R3 | M | 58 | Married | A | S, O, and P | Since young | No formal education | Handicraft, herbal, and forest products entrepreneur |
R4 | F | 55 | Married | A | S, O, P, and H | After being married | No formal education | Park staff, farmer |
R5 | F | 40 | Single | A | S, O, P, and H | Since young | No formal education | Park staff |
R6 | F | 44 | Married | I | S, O, P, and H | Since small | Primary school | Park staff, trade forest products |
R7 | M | 45 | Single | A | S, O, and P | Since small | No formal education | Park staff |
R8 | F | 55 | Married | A | S, O, and G | 3 months | Primary school | Park staff |
Codes R1–R8 refers to informant’s name. R1: Dido Lanau, R2: Lindan Jala, R3: Awang Kudi, R4: Kikai Akar, R5: Resnah Jala, R6: Azizah Hussien, R7: Salam Liman, R8: Kechek Chuka, F: female, M: male, A: animism, I: Islam, S: self-experienced, O: observation, P: parents, H: herbalist, and G: God or spirit.
In-depth, semistructured interviews were carried out as guided [
Participatory observations were also done during casual or social meetings for any occurrences of what related to ethnomedical knowledge of plants among the Jakun community. This also created a unique opportunity for the main researcher to get closer, to build up rapport and trust, and to minimize the cultural gap between the main researcher and the informants.
A 2-day training course on “
Plant samples were collected following the standard guidelines with consideration to the conservation of the species [
Tables and graphs were generated in standard software, namely, Microsoft Excel 2013 [
The eight key informants were two males and six females, with ages ranging between 40 and 66 years. In common, they were individuals who gained knowledge of medicinal uses of plants from self-experiences and observations and through their parents as detailed in Table
The ethnomedical knowledge about the plants was summarized in Table
List of medicinal plants recorded in this study.
Botanical information | Symptoms | Parts used | Methods of preparation | Ways of administration | Frequency of citation | Source of plants |
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Fever, rheumatism | Stem | Decoction in water, infusion in water | Oral: drink | 6 | The wild |
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Fever | Stem | Sap collected | Oral: drink | 6 | The wild |
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Fever | Stem | Sap collected | Oral: drink | 5 | The wild |
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Cough | Stem, flower | Sap collected | Oral: drink, applied on tongue | 5 | The wild |
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Cough, cough with sputum | Root | Decoction in water, raw | Oral: drink, eaten raw | 5 | The wild |
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Fever | Stem | Sap collected | Oral: drink | 4 | The wild |
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Fever (high) | Seed | Infusion in water | Oral: drink, mucilage eaten | 4 | The wild |
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Fatigue | Root | Decoction in water | Oral: drink | 4 | The wild |
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TB | Stem bark | Decoction in water, decoction in oil | Oral: drink. Topical: massage oil, for bathing | 4 | The wild |
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Night fever | Stem | Sap collected | Oral: drink | 3 | The wild |
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Loss of appetite | Fruit | Raw | Oral: eaten raw | 3 | The wild |
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Fever, fatigue | Stem | Sap collected | Oral: drink | 3 | The wild |
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Asthma, rheumatism | Root | Decoction in water | Oral: drink | 3 | The wild |
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Night fever | Stem | Sap collected | Oral: drink | 3 | The wild |
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Fatigue | Root | Decoction in water. In combination with |
Oral: drink | 3 | The wild |
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Fever | Shoot, leaf | Maceration in water | Topical: cold press | 3 | Cultivated |
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Cough | Stem | Sap collected | Oral: applied on tongue | 2 | The wild |
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Asthma, cough with sputum | Root | Decoction in water | Oral: drink | 2 | The wild |
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Cough, asthma | Root | Decoction in water | Oral: drink | 2 | The wild |
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Cough with blood | Shoot, root | Decoction in water, raw, and cooked | Oral: drink, eaten raw, and cooked as food | 2 | The wild |
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Cough | Uncertain |
Uncertain |
Uncertain |
1 | The wild |
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Cough with blood | Root | Decoction in water | Oral: drink | 1 | The wild |
The plant families consist of various habitats such as trees (7 species), climbers (7 species), shrubs (4 species), herbs (3 species), and hemiepiphyte (1 species). In this study, the significant uses of the climbers in the Jakun ethnomedical knowledge showed a substantial relationship between traditional knowledge and plant conservation. As examples, the climbers are greatly dependent on large trees to grow and survive and vice versa [
The 23 medicinal plants species recorded in this study were used to treat an active TB disease (claimed by the Jakun community) and nine of TB-related symptoms. The most frequently cited medicinal plants were used for fever (30%) as it is a common ailment even in other communities. Following that is cough (22%), fatigue (17%), and asthma (13%). 9% of the species were used to treat cough with blood, night fever, cough with sputum, and rheumatism, whereas 4% were documented to treat active TB and loss of appetite.
In this study, various plant parts were used for the herbal preparation. Commonly, roots and stems were used and this applied to 39% of all plants listed. This is followed by shoots involving 9%. The least used parts were flowers, fruits, seeds, and stem barks, for 4% of listed plants. According to informants, the root is the main plant part used in the Jakun traditional medicine. This may arise from the fact that the roots act as reservoirs for water and mineral uptakes, which is rich with variety of secondary metabolites such as steroids, alkaloids, terpenes, and volatile organic compounds [
In the Jakun community, herbal remedies are usually prepared fresh. If this is not the case, they will dry the plant parts (usually the roots) and keep them in a proper storage before use. The most common method of preparation was decoction in water (43% of listed plants) followed by collection of sap (35%) and being eaten raw (13%). The less common methods include infusion in water and being cooked as food (9% each) and maceration in water and decoction in oil (4% each). Decoction in water is equivalent to aqueous extraction and it appears to be much favoured because it is easier to prepare. Additionally, water is the best solvent to dissolve hydrophilic compounds that are responsible for various antimicrobial activities [
22 species of the plants documented in Table If I get medicines that are rare… highly healing… I will plant them. (R1, 2014, personal communication)
It is interesting to note that Jakun’s ethnomedical knowledge reflected their thoughtful conservation efforts and respects towards nature. Apart from replanting the medicinal plants, they also practice to reuse the raw materials. I will not waste the materials. After using, I collect the decoction and I dry the remaining materials again to reuse them. (R6, 2014, personal communication)
Perhaps, unintentionally, these ethnomedical practices that implement sustainable method of harvesting have contributed to the conservation of medicinal plants. In addition, the awareness of loss of herbs among the Jakun community shows that the natural resources are increasingly threatened and intensifying efforts need to be implemented immediately to curb this problem. One of the informants stated that majority of the medicinal plants are easily available but certain species are also available with difficulty. Before this it was very easy to find. Now, it is hard. (R4, 2014, personal communication)
Pardo-de-Santayana and Macía [
The plants with the highest frequency of citation by informants are
Comparison with previous documentation works appeared to suggest that this study attained one new ethnomedical knowledge and one new claim. Majority of the species reported by the informants were already known as medicinal plants in Malaysia except for
The thematic analysis approach was helpful to recognize the culturally valuable ethnomedical knowledge of the Jakun community. Repetition of certain words provided a cue to assign coding and identify themes. In addition, the repetition of questions was deliberated to provide a focus for analysis. For instance, the word “time” appeared frequently during the interviews in describing events of plant collection and herbal administration. Subcodings such as “collecting” or “eating” would be a reference to a theme such as “taboos.” Once the themes emerged, data were fragmented to lift coded elements out of the context of each interview to list comments and information by group [
Themes that emerged via the coding process.
Themes | Subthemes | Codings |
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Perceptions on traditional medicine | Primary source of healthcare for elder generation | Primary |
Alternative source of healthcare for younger generation | Alternative | |
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Transfer of knowledge | Mothers have a significant influence | Mothers |
The young generation are not interested to learn traditional knowledge due to modern lifestyle | Time | |
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Conservation of medicinal plants | Some valuable and in-demand herbs are difficult to find | Difficult to find |
The location to collect plants is far | Too far | |
They use only small amount, use them when necessary, and reuse the materials | Reuse | |
They plant the seedlings | Replant | |
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Taboos | Avoid taking prohibited meals during treatment | Eating |
Nice weather is a good time | Collecting | |
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Confusion of names | Appearance of uncertainties | Names |
Medicinal plants were fairly important in the Jakun community for both the elderly and the young generations. The use of traditional medicine did not seem to conflict with the use of modern medicine. In many cases, they complemented each other. However, there were some contraries among the elder and younger generations of Jakun community in Kampung Peta. As examples consider the following: We never abandon our traditional practices. Just like you, the Malay; if you don’t get well surely you will go to the hospital. We still carry out as what our ancestors have been practicing before and never leave it behind. (R1, 2014, personal communication) “If modern medicine is not effective, I have to look for forest remedies as an alternative.” (Son of R1, 2014, personal communication)
The elder generation uses traditional herbal medicine as the primary source of healthcare while the younger generation uses traditional herbal medicine as the alternative source of healthcare if the modern medicine seems not effective. From the focus group discussion, Jakun’s representative expressed his feelings of being the young generation of Jakun who is keeping up with the modern lifestyle and his effort to preserve their traditional knowledge. He mentioned the following: I do not feel ashamed to the fact that my mother is practicing traditional herbal medicine. Indeed, I feel so proud of it. I also want to learn about it and use it to my daughter. (Rudi bin Kudi, 2013, personal communication)
Although the elder generations are practicing less frequently ethnomedicine due to modernization, such declaration as above proved that the younger generations of the Jakun in Kampung Peta are still supporting the strong practices of ethnomedical knowledge of their ancestors.
During present study, it was found that the knowledge about utilization of medicinal plant species is generally accumulated by observation and experiences and transferred orally to the next generation without any systematic process. However, it is certain that such knowledge system is at the risk of fading in the future [ Even so… the community… mostly the new generation could not recognize the medicinal plants. This is why I tell them, they are the local people but they do not recognize the cures from the forest. (R1, 2014, personal communication)
Commitment towards other responsibilities such as seeking formal education was given more priority compared to learning and teaching about ethnomedical knowledge. The informant explained the following: How can we teach our grandchildren about this knowledge while they are studying at school? (R4, 2014, personal communication)
Assimilation to modern lifestyle by the young generation most probably contributes to the huge impact on transfer of knowledge. At the time this study was conducted in 2013, the community in Kampung Peta had already gained access to modern medical treatment that was frequently used. It was in the form of a small clinic built by the government in the village to routinely monitor health status of the Jakun community. In addition, they received regular biweekly visits by the medical officers. Moreover, it takes only two hours by car or motorcycle from the village to Mersing Hospital, where doctors are available. Consequently, all of these lessen the exposure to ethnomedical knowledge as a source of remedies [
Despite the challenges in transferring the knowledge, having a family and being a parent lead to the awareness in learning about traditional herbal medicine. He (referring to her son)… now knows a little about forest remedies; after he has a daughter. A few years back before he could not tell anything at all. He definitely knew nothing. Just after his daughter was sick, he asked my opinion on which forest remedies are better. (RI, 2014, personal communication)
Medicinal plants have traditionally been used at home to treat family sickness. In this case, women have particular roles in transferring the ethnomedical knowledge in their capacities as mothers [
In Jakun’s ethnomedical knowledge practices, a few conditions must be followed during the plant collection, preparation, and treatment to ensure efficacy. For medical purposes, medicinal plants should be collected in certain settings such as during the full moon or early in the morning. Indeed, time of harvest is a possible source of variation for the bioactivity of the extracts [
Confusion of plant names and terminologies and the appearance of uncertainties as shown in Table
During the interviews, some of the informants gave information about the plants that they previously consumed themselves. On the other hand, some of the informants gave information about medicinal plants that they thought the researcher might be interested in although they have little knowledge about the plant. It is important to bear in mind the possible bias in these responses. Hence, confirmation using quantitative approach should be employed to ratify the statement and to eliminate bias of information.
Following their emic perceptions, all of the key informants were able to differentiate the symptoms of TB as described by the researcher and to define their ethnomedical terms according to their understanding. Table
Symptoms of TB given by informants and their equivalent biomedical terms.
Ailment categories | Biomedical terms | Local terms |
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Respiratory diseases and fever | Cough |
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Cough with sputum |
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Ordinary fever |
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High fever |
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Asthma |
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Chest pain |
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Night fever |
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Arthritis | Rheumatism |
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Joint pain |
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Ear, nose, throat bleedings | Nose |
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Sore throat |
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Cough with blood |
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Others | Fatigue |
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Loss of appetite |
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Based on Table
In the Jakun community, TB is closely associated with black magic. “ in our community, this disease is typically linked to jealousy. It is intended to destroy the person. We no longer practice such custom and I, myself prohibit it. (Sangka Chuka, 2013, personal communication)
In Kampung Peta, “
This study has contributed to the scientific documentation of medicinal plants used for the treatment of TB in Johor, Malaysia. The 23 species of medicinal plants recorded in this study demonstrate that the Jakun community in Kampung Peta are still rich in ethnomedical knowledge particularly of treatment of TB and its related symptoms. The most frequently cited species were
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.
The authors are very grateful to Malaysia Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) and Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) for providing the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) Project Code 1435 and UTHM Contract Grant Scheme Project Code C031, Mr. Kamarudin Salleh from Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) and Associated Professor Dr. Alona C. Linatoc from Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) for advising on plant identification, Department of Orang Asli Development (JAKOA) under the Malaysia Ministry of Rural and Regional Development for the approval to conduct the research, and dedicated staffs of Johor National Parks Corporation (JNPC) for assistance during fieldworks and permission to carry out research. Highest appreciation is due to all key informants who had given their consent and unreservedly shared their precious knowledge and to all Jakun community of Kampung Peta for their hospitality and warm friendship.