The use of food medicines is a widespread practice worldwide. In Brazil, such use is often associated with wild animals, mostly focusing on vertebrate species. Here we assessed taxonomic and ecological trends in traditional uses of wild edible vertebrates in the country, through an extensive ethnobiological database analysis. Our results showed that at least 165 health conditions are reportedly treated by edible vertebrate species (
Wildlife represents an immeasurable source of raw materials that support health systems of different human cultures that depend on nature as a source of medicines to treat and cure illnesses [
The use of animal species as remedies, although representing an important component of traditional medicines (sometimes in association with plant species), has been much less studied than medicinal plants [
Brazil is well known for its rich social/cultural diversity, as represented by more than two hundred indigenous people and a range of local communities, which in turn have contributed to the high diversity of traditional knowledge and practices which include the use of medicinal animals. Indeed, animals have been used as a source of medicine in the country and have played a significant role in healing practices as many people have used animals as medicines or alternative or supplementary treatments [
Hence, Brazil can be considered a model to extensive zootherapeutic studies, since the use of animals and animal-derived products is widespread among the country’s human cultures, as predicted by the zootherapeutic universality hypothesis [
Recent research has highlighted the predominant use of vertebrates as medicinal fauna in different medical systems worldwide [
In this article, we provide an assessment of the uses of wild edible vertebrate species in Brazilian Traditional Medicine. The study focused on the following questions: (1) which edible vertebrate taxa are mostly used in the Brazilian Traditional Medicine? (2) Do the conditions treated by medicinal resources vary with taxonomical group and/or animal’s habitat?
Data used in this research resulted from an extensive analysis of the ethnozoological database provided by the Laboratório de Etnozoologia, Universidade Estadual da Paraíba. The database comprises information from ethnozoological studies on faunal medicinal use performed in all Brazilian regions. Additional data was gathered through information available in reviews published by the laboratory researchers [
Data analysis comprised information on species of edible vertebrates used as medicines, their family classification, habitats, conservation status, and conditions to which animals were prescribed. We only considered those taxa that could be identified to species level, and the scientific nomenclature of the taxa recorded (fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals) and/or habitats were in accordance with the following databases: Fishbase (Froese and Pauly, 2016;
The conservation status of the analysed species follows the International Union for the Conservation of Nature [
All data were verified for normal distribution (Shapiro-Wilk’s test) and homogeneity of variance (Levene’s test) and nonparametric tests were performed when those assumptions were not met.
A Kruskal-Wallis test (followed by Dunn’s post hoc test) and an ANOVA were performed to determine whether the number of health conditions treated per species varied among vertebrate taxonomic groups or habitat types, respectively. Resemblance between health conditions treated (grouped into ICD’s categories) and taxonomic groups or animals’ habitat types were assessed based on Jaccard’s similarity index, where resulting matrices were used to perform cluster analyses. Due to low number of species recorded (
At least 204 edible vertebrate species have been used in Brazilian Traditional Medicine (see Table
Vertebrate species (scientific and common names, when available) used as medicine food in Brazil, with remarks to habitats, conservation status, and health conditions to which each animal is prescribed. Families and species name in alphabetical order.
Taxa | Health conditions treated | Habitat |
---|---|---|
Fishes | ||
Anostomidae | ||
|
Earache | Freshwater |
|
Leucoma, edema | Freshwater |
Arapaimidae | ||
|
Asthma, pneumonia | Freshwater |
Arhynchobatidae | ||
|
Haemorrhage after delivery | Marine |
Ariidae | ||
|
Pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting | Marine/brackish |
|
Injuries caused by itself | Marine/brackish |
|
Pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting | Marine/brackish |
|
Injuries caused by itself | Marine/brackish |
Aspredinidae | ||
|
Asthma | Freshwater/brackish |
|
Asthma | Freshwater/brackish |
Auchenipteridae | ||
|
Umbilical hernia, asthma, sexual impotence | Freshwater |
Balistidae | ||
|
Bronchitis | Marine/reef |
|
Stroke, asthma, thrombosis, earache, pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting, haemorrhage, ascites, schistosomiasis, appendicitis, menstrual cramps, gastritis | Marine/reef |
Batrachoididae | ||
|
Pain relief caused in injuries by the species’ sting | Marine/brackish |
Bryconidae | ||
|
Flu | Freshwater |
Callichthyidae | ||
|
Asthma, umbilical hernia | Freshwater |
Lamnidae | ||
|
Osteoporosis | Marine/brackish |
|
Osteoporosis | Marine |
Carcharhinidae | ||
|
Osteoporosis | Marine/reef |
|
Osteoporosis | Marine/brackish/reef/freshwater |
|
Osteoporosis | Marine/brackish/reef |
|
Osteoporosis | Marine/brackish/reef |
|
Asthma, rheumatism, wounds, inflammations, osteoporosis, anaemia | Marine/brackish |
|
Osteoporosis | Marine/brackish/reef |
|
Osteoporosis | Marine/brackish/reef |
|
Rheumatism, osteoporosis | Marine |
|
Rheumatism, osteoporosis | Marine/brackish/reef/freshwater |
Sphyrnidae | ||
|
Asthma, wounds, rheumatism, inflammation | Marine/brackish/reef |
|
Osteoporosis | Marine/brackish/reef |
|
Osteoporosis | Marine/brackish |
Squalidae | ||
|
Osteoporosis | Marine |
Rhinobatidae | ||
|
Osteoporosis | Marine |
Centropomidae | ||
|
Nephritis | Marine/brackish/freshwater |
|
Edema in the legs | Marine/brackish/reef/freshwater |
Characidae | ||
|
Alcoholism, leishmaniosis, skin burns, wounds, rheumatism | Freshwater |
Clupeidae | ||
|
Osteoporosis | Marine/brackish/reef |
|
Alcoholism, osteoporosis | Marine/reef |
Cynodontidae | ||
|
Earache | Freshwater |
Dasyatidae | ||
|
Asthma, pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting, burns | Marine |
|
Asthma, pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting, burns | Marine/reef |
Diodontidae | ||
|
Wounds, lump | Marine/reef |
|
Wounds, lump | Marine/brackish |
Doradidae | ||
|
Injuries caused by itself | Freshwater |
|
Swelling | Freshwater |
|
Rheumatism | Freshwater |
|
Rheumatism | Freshwater |
|
Rheumatism | Freshwater |
|
Rheumatism | Freshwater |
Echeneidae | ||
|
Asthma, bronchitis | Marine/brackish/reef |
|
Osteoporosis | Marine/reef |
Erythrinidae | ||
|
Asthma | Freshwater |
|
Ophthalmological problems, rheumatism, cataracts, wounds, snake bite, conjunctivitis, stroke, thrombosis, asthma, toothache, fever, earache, diarrhoea, deafness, boils, bleeding, alcoholism, tetanus, sore throat, itching, sprains, leucoma | Freshwater |
|
Earache | Freshwater |
Cichlidae | ||
|
Pain relief in injuries caused by the ray sting | Freshwater |
Gadidae | ||
|
Boils | Marine/brackish |
Ginglymostomatidae | ||
|
Rheumatism, osteoporosis | Marine/brackish/reef |
Gymnotidae | ||
|
Sprains, bruises, insect bites, snake bite, asthma, flu, pain in general, muscle strain, rheumatism, osteoporosis, deafness, pneumonia, itching | Freshwater |
Heptapteridae | ||
|
Injuries caused by that fish species | Freshwater |
Holocentridae | ||
|
Wounds | Marine/reef |
Megalopidae | ||
|
Stroke, headache, asthma, shortness of breath, thrombosis, chest pain, injuries caused by bang | Marine/brackish/reef/freshwater |
Monacanthidae | ||
|
Asthma | Marine/reef |
|
Asthma | Marine/reef |
Muraenidae | ||
|
Bleeding (wounds) | Marine/reef |
|
Bleeding (wounds) | Marine/reef |
|
Bleeding (wounds) | Marine/reef |
Myliobatidae | ||
|
Asthma, pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting, burns, haemorrhage | Marine/reef |
Narcinidae | ||
|
Pain | Marine |
|
Toothache | Marine/reef |
Pimelodidae | ||
|
Asthma, wounds, hernia, burns in the skin, rheumatism, flu, cough | Freshwater |
|
Flu, removal of wrath | Freshwater |
|
Cold | Freshwater |
|
Leishmaniosis, tuberculosis | Freshwater |
|
Asthma, toothache, earache, wounds, athlete’s foot, burns in the skin, rheumatism, flu | Freshwater |
Potamotrygonidae | ||
|
Asthma, hernia, flu, pneumonia, cough, earache, burns | Freshwater |
|
Pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting, wounds, cracks in the sole of the feet | Freshwater |
|
Asthma, hernia, flu, pneumonia, cough, earache, burns | Freshwater |
|
Asthma, hernia, flu, pneumonia, cough, earache, burns | Freshwater |
|
Pain relief in injuries caused by that species’ sting | Freshwater |
Pristidae | ||
|
Asthma, rheumatism, arthritis | Marine/brackish/freshwater |
|
Asthma, rheumatism, arthritis | Marine/brackish/freshwater |
Prochilodontidae | ||
|
To avoid swelling of the breast feeding, mycosis | Freshwater |
|
Chilblain, skin burns, wounds, rheumatism, eye pains | Freshwater |
Serrasalmidae | ||
|
Paralysis of arms and legs | Freshwater |
|
Venereal disease | Freshwater |
|
Inflammations, sexual impotence | Freshwater |
Sciaenidae | ||
|
Renal failure | Marine/brackish/freshwater |
|
Renal failure | Marine/brackish |
|
Pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting, cough, asthma, bronchitis | Marine/brackish |
|
Asthma, urinary incontinence, backache | Freshwater |
|
Urinary disorders, haemorrhage, snake bites | Freshwater |
|
Urinary disorders, haemorrhage, snake bites | Freshwater |
Sparidae | ||
|
Asthma | Marine/reef |
Synbranchidae | ||
|
Bronchitis | Freshwater/brackish |
Tetraodontidae | ||
|
Breast cancer, backache, warts | Marine/brackish/freshwater |
|
Rheumatism | Marine/brackish/reef |
Trichiuridae | ||
|
Asthma | Marine/brackish |
Urotrygonidae | ||
|
Asthma, pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting, burns | Marine |
Amphibians | ||
Bufonidae | ||
|
Urinary incontinence, dental caries, cancer, wounds, boils, erysipelas acne, inducing abortion | Semiaquatic |
Leptodactylidae | ||
|
Earache, rheumatism, joint pain, cancer, sore throat | Semiaquatic |
|
Sore throat, cough, asthma, arthritis, backache, tonsillitis, hoarseness | Semiaquatic |
Reptiles | ||
Iguanidae | ||
|
Earache, erysipelas, asthma, rheumatism, edema, abscesses, joint pain, wounds, acne, athlete’s foot, sore throat, swelling, burn, tumour, sucking a splinter out of skin or flesh, boil, injuries caused by the spines of the “arraia” and others fishes, inflammation, hernia | Terrestrial |
Teiidae | ||
|
Earache, deafness, rheumatism, erysipelas, skin thorns and wounds, respiratory diseases, sore throat, snake bite, asthma, tumour, swelling, infection, bronchitis | Terrestrial |
|
Sexual impotence, rheumatism, erysipelas, dermatitis, snake bites, asthma, tetanus, earache, thrombosis, wounds, infection of nail, swelling, herpes zoster, irritation when milk teeth are erupting, jaundice, inflammation, tumour, sore throat, infection, bronchitis, injuries caused by the spines of the “arraia,” pain relief in injuries caused by snake bites, toothache, sucking a splinter out of skin or flesh, headache, cough, stroke, coarse throat | Terrestrial |
Boidae | ||
|
Rheumatism, lung disease, thrombosis, boils, tuberculosis, stomach ache, edema, snake bite, cancer, ache, swelling, helping to prevent abortion, pain in the body, inflammation, athlete’s foot, calluses, tumours, cracks in the sole of the feet, goitre, sore throat, arthrosis, insect sting, dog bite, erysipelas, thrombosis, asthma, neck strain, strain muscle | Terrestrial |
|
Assisting in removing spines or other sharp structures from the skin, rheumatism | Terrestrial |
|
Wounds, skin problems, bruises, sprains, arthrosis, rheumatism, boils, sexual impotence, headache, sore throat, thrombosis, swelling, tumour, asthma, muscle strain, numbness, syphilis, reducing pain, luxation | Semiaquatic |
|
Rheumatism, pain in articulations, injuries caused by itself, sore throat, earache | Terrestrial |
Crotalidae | ||
|
Asthma, snake bite, thrombosis, wounds, luxation, rheumatism, pain in the legs, erysipelas, deafness, epilepsy, skin diseases, tuberculosis, hanseniasis, backache, tumour, boil, headache, earache, osteoporosis, sore throat, toothache, pain relief in injuries caused by sting of insects and snake bite, irritation when milk teeth are erupting, tonsillitis, impotence, fatigue | |
Chelidae | ||
|
Asthma, sore throat, swelling, earache, rheumatism, arthrosis, healing of umbilical cord of newborn baby, mumps | Freshwater |
|
Diphtheria, headache, earache, pain in the breast, wounds, furuncle, gastritis, swelling, haemorrhoids, sore throat, backache, eye problems, sucking a splinter out of skin or flesh, rheumatism, deafness | Freshwater |
|
Rheumatism, discharge, thrombosis, bronchitis, diarrhoea, haemorrhage, asthma, sore throat, hoarseness, muscle aches | Freshwater |
Cheloniidae | ||
|
Injuries caused by bang, toothache, diabetes, headache, backache, wounds, cough, bronchitis, asthma, thrombosis, rheumatism, stroke, hoarseness, flu, backache, earache, sore throat, swelling | Marine |
|
Injuries caused by bang, toothache, diabetes, headache, backache, wounds, cough, bronchitis, asthma, flu, thrombosis, rheumatism, toothache, stroke, hoarseness, earache, sore throat, swelling, whooping cough, arthritis, erysipelas, boil, wounds, arthrosis, inflammation | Marine |
|
Injuries caused by bang, toothache, diabetes, headache, backache, wounds, cough, bronchitis, asthma, thrombosis, stroke, hoarseness, flu, rheumatism, earache, sore throat, swelling | Marine |
|
Injuries caused by bang, toothache, diabetes, headache, backache, wounds, cough, flu, bronchitis, asthma, thrombosis, rheumatism, stroke, hoarseness | Marine |
Dermochelyidae | ||
|
Rheumatism, earache, sore throat, swelling | Marine |
Geoemydidae | ||
|
Wounds, tumour, erysipelas, earache, rheumatism | Semiaquatic |
Podocnemididae | ||
|
Inflammation, acne, tumour, boil, rheumatism, pterygium, skin spots, backache, earache, arthrosis, arthritis, swelling, wrinkle | Freshwater |
|
Wounds, tumour, erysipelas, earache, rheumatism | Freshwater |
|
Blackhead, acne | Freshwater |
|
Blackhead, acne | Freshwater |
Testudinidae | ||
|
Catarrh, erysipelas, bronchitis, stopping the sensation of getting thirsty, asthma | Terrestrial |
|
Sore throat, rheumatism, hernia, wounds, leishmaniosis, varicocele, earache | Terrestrial |
Kinosternidae | ||
|
Muscle aches | Freshwater |
Alligatoridae | ||
|
Asthma, stroke, bronchitis, backache, earache, rheumatism, thrombosis, sexual impotence, snake bites (antidote), evil eye, irritation when milk teeth are erupting, discharge, swelling, scratch, athlete’s foot, ophthalmological problems, asthma, sore throat, amulet used as a protection against snake bite, rheumatism, hernia, prostate problems, infection, thrombosis | Freshwater |
|
Asthma, sore throat, amulet used as a protection against snake bite, rheumatism, irritation when milk teeth are erupting, hernia, prostate problems | Freshwater |
|
Thrombosis, infection, swelling, asthma, amulet used as a protection against snake bite, injuries caused by spines of the “arraia,” pain relief in injuries caused by snake bites | Freshwater |
|
Snake bite, asthma, stroke, rheumatism, thrombosis, backache, sexual impotence, edema, mycosis, evil eye, irritation when milk teeth are erupting, snake bite (antidote), discharge, sore throat, amulet used as a protection against snake bite, hernia, prostate problems | Freshwater |
|
Rheumatism | Freshwater |
Birds | ||
Anatidae | ||
|
Bleeding (wounds) | Terrestrial |
Anhimidae | ||
|
Intoxication from poisonous animals | Terrestrial |
Ardeidae | ||
|
Swelling, inflammation, injuries caused by the spines of the “arraia” and others fishes, asthma, boil, tumour, inflammation, rheumatism, earache | Terrestrial |
Caprimulgidae | ||
|
Amulets, snake bite | Terrestrial |
Cracidae | ||
|
Insomnia, epilepsy | Terrestrial |
|
Bleeding, snakebite, indigestion, stroke, lack of appetite in children, pneumonia | Terrestrial |
Ciconiidae | ||
|
Injuries caused by the spines of the “arraia” and others fishes, thrombosis | Terrestrial |
Columbidae | ||
|
Lack of appetite, nausea during pregnancy | Terrestrial |
|
Lack of appetite, nausea during pregnancy, deafness | Terrestrial |
|
Lack of appetite, nausea during pregnancy, deafness | Terrestrial |
|
Lack of appetite, nausea during pregnancy, deafness, stye, thrombosis | Terrestrial |
Corvidae | ||
|
Asthma | Terrestrial |
Cuculidae | ||
|
Bronchitis, thrombosis, asthma, whooping cough | Terrestrial |
|
Asthma | Terrestrial |
Charadriidae | ||
|
Helping to stay awake | Terrestrial |
Emberizidae | ||
|
Thrombosis | Terrestrial |
Furnariidae | ||
|
Mumps | Terrestrial |
|
||
|
Eye problems | Semiaquatic |
Rallidae | ||
|
Evil eye | Terrestrial |
Rheidae | ||
|
General aches, rheumatism, thrombosis, strokes | Terrestrial |
Tinamidae | ||
|
Thrombosis, stroke | Terrestrial |
|
Assisting children who take longer than usual to start walking | Terrestrial |
|
Assisting children who take longer than usual to start walking | Terrestrial |
|
Thrombosis, stroke, earache | Terrestrial |
|
Snake bite | Terrestrial |
|
Snake bite | Terrestrial |
|
Thrombosis, snake bites (antidote) | Terrestrial |
Mammals | ||
Agoutidae | ||
|
Wound in the breast caused by suckling, ophthalmological problems, stomach disorders, pterygium, sucking a splinter out of skin or flesh, injuries caused by the spines of “arraia,” control of cholesterol level | Terrestrial |
Bovidae | ||
|
Rheumatism, osteoporosis, thrombosis | Terrestrial |
Bradypodidae | ||
|
Thrombosis | Terrestrial |
|
Thrombosis, insects bite, scorpions bite | Terrestrial |
Canidae | ||
|
Rheumatism, flu, haemorrhoids, disorders after parturition (to accelerate recovery after parturition) | Terrestrial |
|
Epilepsy | Terrestrial |
|
Alcoholism, thrombosis, rheumatism, ophthalmological problems, diabetes, urinary infection | Terrestrial |
Caviidae | ||
|
Inflammation | Terrestrial |
|
Inflammation | Terrestrial |
|
Constipation | Terrestrial |
Cebidae | ||
|
Whooping cough, sore throat, asthma | Terrestrial |
|
Whooping cough, inflammation | Terrestrial |
|
Whooping cough, inflammation, accelerating parturition | Terrestrial |
|
Insect sting | Terrestrial |
Cervidae | ||
|
Diarrhoea, vomit | Terrestrial |
|
Stroke | Terrestrial |
|
Diarrhoea, verminosis, evil eye | Terrestrial |
|
Asthma, edema, rheumatism, snake bite, thrombosis, assisting children who take longer than usual to start walking, toothache, wounds, sprains | Terrestrial |
|
Diarrhoea, verminosis, evil eye | Terrestrial |
Dasypodidae | ||
|
Thrombosis, insects bite, scorpions bite, edema, asthma, deafness, earache, evil eye | Terrestrial |
|
Wounds, earache, evil eye, asthma, sore throat, pneumonia, sinusitis, deafness, coarse throat | Terrestrial |
|
Thrombosis, rheumatism | Terrestrial |
|
Snake bite | Terrestrial |
Dasyproctidae | ||
|
Asthma, thrombosis, earache | Terrestrial |
Delphinidae | ||
|
Asthma, headache, rheumatism, hernia, womb disorders, sore throat, injuries caused by the spines of the “arraia,” swelling, haemorrhoids inflammation, wounds, earache, erysipelas, athlete’s foot, tumour, cancer | Freshwater |
|
Asthma, headache, rheumatism, hernia, womb disorders, sore throat, injuries caused by the spines of the “arraia,” swelling, haemorrhoids inflammation, wounds, earache, erysipelas, athlete’s foot, tumour, cancer | Marine |
Didelphidae | ||
|
Boils | Terrestrial |
|
Acne, wounds, bronchitis, joint pain, stomach ache, rheumatism, diarrhoea, inflammation, erysipelas, pain in gestation, asthma, headache, toothache, earache, sore throat | Terrestrial |
Echimyidae | ||
|
Diarrhoea | Terrestrial |
Erethizontidae | ||
|
Bronchitis, thrombosis, epilepsy, stroke, abscesses, conjunctivitis, asthma | Terrestrial |
Hydrochaeridae | ||
|
Thrombosis, conjunctivitis, venereal disease, rheumatism, earache, strengthen bones, liver pain, bronchitis, asthma, wounds, erysipelas, cough | Terrestrial |
Iniidae | ||
|
Asthma, headache, rheumatism, hernia, womb disorders, sore throat, injuries caused by the spines of the “arraia,” swelling, haemorrhoids inflammation, wounds, earache, erysipelas, athlete’s foot, tumour, cancer | Freshwater |
Leporidae | ||
|
Thrombosis, conjunctivitis, boils, burns | Terrestrial |
Mustelidae | ||
|
Rheumatism | Terrestrial |
|
Thrombosis | Terrestrial |
Myrmecophagidae | ||
|
Thrombosis, stroke | Terrestrial |
|
Edema, thrombosis | Terrestrial |
Procyonidae | ||
|
Sexual impotence, wounds, skin burns, snake bites, backache | Terrestrial |
|
Rheumatism, epilepsy, thrombosis, snake bite | Terrestrial |
Tapiridae | ||
|
Rheumatism, arthrosis, osteoporosis, bursitis, muscular pain, asthma, tonsillitis | Terrestrial |
Tayassuidae | ||
|
Thrombosis, bronchitis, stroke | Terrestrial |
|
Thrombosis, stroke | Terrestrial |
Trichechidae | ||
|
Sprains, vaginal discharge, injuries caused by bang, burns, asthma, menstrual cramps, rheumatism, sore throat, wounds, muscle strain, sucking a splinter out of skin or flesh, tumour, backache, hernia, arthrosis, luxation, menstrual cramps, insects bite | Freshwater |
|
Sprains, vaginal discharge, injuries caused by bang, burns, asthma, menstrual cramps, rheumatism, sore throat, wounds, muscle strain, sucking a splinter out of skin or flesh, tumour, backache hernia, arthrosis, luxation, menstrual cramps, insects bite | Marine |
Felidae | ||
|
Wounds, leishmaniosis | Terrestrial |
|
Wounds, leishmaniosis | Terrestrial |
|
Wounds | Terrestrial |
|
Headache, sore throat, backache, wounds | Terrestrial |
|
Wounds, urinary incontinence, injuries, sore throat, sucking a splinter out of skin or flesh | Terrestrial |
Number of edible vertebrates used in traditional medicines in Brazil, according to their habitat types.
Edible medicinal vertebrates were reportedly used to treat 165 health conditions/diseases (see Table
Medicinal uses of edible fishes and game species in Brazil. Health condition categories follow the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10 Version: 2016).
ICD 10 | Indication of use and therapeutic properties |
|
---|---|---|
Symptoms, signs, and abnormal clinical and laboratory findings, not elsewhere classified |
Ascites; chest pain; cough; cracks in the sole of the feet; edema (also quoted as edema in the legs); fatigue; fever; headache; hoarseness; inflammation; jaundice; lack of appetite (also quoted as lack of appetite in children); numbness; pain (also quoted as pain in the body; pain in the breast; pain in the legs; to reduce pain); shortness of breath; swelling; assisting children who take longer than usual to start walking; vomit. | 24 |
Certain infectious and parasitic diseases |
Abscesses; athlete’s foot; diphtheria; erysipelas; herpes zoster; infection; leishmaniosis; leprosy; mumps; mycosis; schistosomiasis; syphilis; tetanus; tuberculosis; venereal disease; verminosis; warts; whooping cough. | 18 |
Injury, poisoning, and certain other consequences of external causes |
Bruises; burns (also quoted as burns in the skin); chilblains; injuries caused by bang; injuries caused by the animal itself; injuries caused by the spines of fishes (also quoted as injuries caused by the spines of rays); intoxication from poisonous animals; pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting; pain relief in injuries caused by snake bites; pain relief in injuries caused by sting of insects; scratch; assisting in removing spines or other sharp structures from the skin (also quoted as to suck a splinter out of skin or flesh); wounds. | 16 |
Diseases of the digestive system |
Appendicitis; constipation; dental caries; diarrhoea; gastritis; haemorrhoids; hernia (also quoted as umbilical hernia); indigestion; irritation when milk teeth are erupting; liver pain; stomach ache; stomach disorders; toothache. | 14 |
Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue |
Arthritis; arthrosis; backache; bursitis; luxation; muscle strain; muscular pain; neck strain; osteoporosis; pain in joint; rheumatism; sprains; helping to strengthen bones. | 13 |
Diseases of the respiratory system |
Asthma; bronchitis; catarrh; coarse throat; cold; flu; lung disease; pneumonia; respiratory diseases; sinusitis; sore throat; tonsillitis. | 12 |
Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue |
Acne; blackhead; boils; calluses; dermatitis; itching; paronychia; skin diseases; skin spots; skin thorns and wounds; wrinkles. | 11 |
Diseases of the genitourinary system |
Menstrual cramps; nephritis; prostate problems; renal failure; urinary disorders; urinary incontinence; urinary infection; discharge (also quoted as vaginal discharge); womb disorders. | 10 |
Pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium |
Disorders after parturition (to accelerate recovery after parturition); haemorrhage after delivery; nausea during pregnancy; pain in gestation; helping to accelerate parturition; helping to avoid swelling of the breast feeding; helping to induce abortion; helping to prevent abortion; wound in the breast caused by suckling. | 9 |
Diseases of the eye and adnexa |
Cataracts; conjunctivitis; eye pains; ophthalmological problems (also quoted as eye problems); leucoma; pterygium; stye. | 8 |
External causes of morbidity and mortality |
Dog bite; insect sting; scorpions sting; snake bite; helping to stop the sensation of getting thirsty. | 5 |
Undefined |
Amulet; amulet used as a protection against snake bite; evil eye; helping to remove wrath. | 4 |
Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs and certain disorders involving the immune mechanism |
Anaemia; bleeding (also quoted as wounds bleeding); haemorrhage. | 4 |
Diseases of the circulatory system |
Stroke; thrombosis; varicocele. | 3 |
Diseases of the nervous system |
Epilepsy; insomnia; paralysis of arms and legs. | 3 |
Mental and behavioural disorders |
Alcoholism; sexual impotence; helping to stay awake. | 3 |
Endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases |
Diabetes, goitre; helping to control cholesterol level. | 3 |
Neoplasms |
Breast cancer; cancer (also quoted as tumour). | 3 |
Diseases of the ear and mastoid process |
Deafness; earache. | 2 |
Certain conditions originating in the perinatal period |
Healing of umbilical cord of newborn baby. | 1 |
Number of health conditions treated by each taxonomic group of edible vertebrates used in traditional medicines in Brazil, according to their taxonomic group. Numbers above bars: number of animal species analysed.
Each species was prescribed to treat a mean of
Number of health conditions treated per species, according to taxonomic group. Letters indicate the results of Dunn’s post hoc test: shared letters mean no statistical difference between groups (
Prescriptions of edible medicinal vertebrates were generalised in 20 disease categories, according to ICD-10. From those, “symptoms, signs, and abnormal clinical and laboratory findings” were the most recorded category in terms of therapeutic quotes recorded, followed by “infectious and parasitic diseases” and “injuries, poisoning, and other consequences of external causes” (Table
With regard to the number of species associated with ICD-10 categories, most animals were prescribed for treating problems associated with the “musculoskeletal system and connective tissue” and the “respiratory system” (each:
Despite most medicinal vertebrates provide raw materials for remedies, medicinal products often have magical-religious purposes, particularly for the prevention of diseases of spiritual cause (e.g., evil eye); they were also used as amulets to prevent diseases (e.g., amulet used as a protection against snake bite). It is worth noting that many animals involved in poisoning accidents, such as stingrays and snakes, are also used in folk medicine, particularly to treat injuries caused by themselves (see Table
Fishes and birds appear to have most similar use according to ICD-10 categories (Jaccard index: 94.4), as well as reptiles and mammals (Jaccard index: 90.0), resulting in two distinct clusters (Figure
Dendogram showing taxonomic group (a) and habitat type (b) similarities with ICD-10 disease categories.
With regard to species conservation status, 160 animals figure in at least one of the three red lists assessed (see Table
The high number of vertebrates used as medicine is not surprising given the important role played by wildlife as a source of medicines in different traditional medicine systems [
Zootherapeutic products, however, do not include inedible parts solely: flesh, eggs, and viscera are among some animal products used for both medicinal and alimentary purposes [
Whether for food or medicinal purposes, the consumption of wild animals can lead to the transmission of various human diseases [
It was found that several medicinal vertebrates used in the Brazilian Traditional Medicine have multiple therapeutic indications. The possibility of using various remedies for the same ailment is popular because it allows adapting to the availability of the animals. The fact that some medicinal animals are being used for the same purpose suggests that different species can share similar medicinal properties and might indicate the pharmacological effectiveness of those zootherapeutic remedies [
Multiple medicinal uses become even more evident when considering reptiles, as this group comprises one of the most important animal resources related to the medicine history [
On the other hand, despite presenting the highest diversity of medicinal species, fishes were recommended to treat a comparatively low number of health conditions. This may be related to the fact that most parts of a fish are consumed as food; thus fewer products are left to be used in medicinal practices. Similarly, when considering major hunted taxa in Brazil, that is, mammals and birds [
Animals from continental habitats (i.e., terrestrial and freshwater) were found to treat similar disease categories; the same could be found within coastal and marine animals. This may be related to the local distribution of the diseases treated, thus leading people to use local resources in the traditional medicine of each region. For instance, in coastal areas, the occurrence of diseases classified into the category “external causes of morbidity and mortality” is very common, due to sting/poisoning accidents caused by fishes (e.g., stingrays, catfish, and toadfish), which are often treated by zootherapeutic products derived from the animals that caused the lesions [
Natural resources play an essential role in health care in traditional medical systems, as well as in bioprospecting for new drugs [
The comprehension of the multiplicity and trends in therapeutic uses of several vertebrate species is of particular interest from a conservation perspective, as threatened animals, such as those recorded in this and other studies [
Wild edible vertebrates, particularly those inhabiting aquatic environments, are used to treat a wide range of health conditions in Brazil, with reptiles consisting of the most versatile group in multiple disease prescriptions. Moreover, a trend in prescriptions was found according to animals’ habitats, as disease categories were similar within continental and within coastal and marine habitats. Several consumed species are under threat, leading to a raise in conservation concerns, particularly due to the dual function (as food and medicines) those species present.
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.