This study was carried out to investigate the indigenous use and pharmacological activity of traditional medicinal plants of Mount Taibai, China. Pharmacological data were collected by conducting informal interviews with local experienced doctors practicing traditional Chinese medicine and via open-ended questionnaires on villagers. We conclude that the residents of Mt. Taibai possess rich pharmacological knowledge. This study may help identify high-value traditional medicinal plant species, promote economic development associated with local medicinal plants, and increase awareness from government departments.
Ethnobotany is a plant science that studies historical and current uses of medicinal plants [
Qinling is the most important northsouth geographical divide in China. The peak of Qinling is Mt. Taibai, which is the most important boundary in eastern mainland China in terms of climatic variation and the distribution of vegetation, and is especially significant because of its eastwest alignment and abundance of species [
In recent years, interest has grown in the traditional medicinal plants of Mt. Taibai, both domestically and internationally. Attention has focused on biodiversity and pharmacological properties of individual species; however, few studies have attempted to evaluate their medicinal efficacy, or to explore the scientific basis of these plant medicines [
We investigated and documented traditional medicinal plants in Mt. Taibai and analyzed the treatment diversity of medicinal methods, identifying numerous plant parts, remedy formulations, and ailments that they were used to treat. We also evaluated the efficacy of these medicinal plants by comparing local usage with findings from published phytochemical and pharmacological studies. We believe that this research will not only help to stimulate the local economy, but also help to promote the protection and utilization of traditional medicinal plants.
Mt. Taibai (107°22′–107°51′ E, 33°49′–34°05′ N) is located in the center of the Qinling mountain range in Shaanxi Province, China. It covers Taibai County, the southern part of Mei County, and the southwestern part of Zhouzhi County. The elevation of the study region extends from 819 to 3767 m (see Figure
Location of Taibai Mountains Nature Reserve in Shaanxi, China.
Pharmacological data were collected by conducting interviews with local experienced doctors of traditional Chinese medicine, and open-ended questionnaires were given to villagers. Participants were selected to include plant collectors, plant cultivators, and plant traders. In total, nine experienced doctors of traditional Chinese medicine were interviewed; all were male, five were aged more than 50 years, and four were aged 40–50 years. In addition, 41 villagers (74% male, 26% female) participated in our open-ended questionnaire, 54% of whom were aged more than 40 years. The majority (54%) had no formal education, and 46% had primary school education, of whom 21% also had secondary school education. We gathered information on the altitudes of plant distributions, plant uses, the parts of plants that are used, their modes of utilization, the formulations of remedies, and the ailments that were treated using them. For species that could not be identified with certainty, specimens were collected for identification using references and further expert knowledge. The informant consensus factor
To determine the variability, the reasonability of preparation methods, and the efficacy of the medicinal plants, we analyzed the altitudes at which the plants were grown, the taxonomic category, the parts of the plants that were used, the ailments that were treated, the chemical composition, and the pharmacological activity. Data were plotted using Sigmaplot 12.0, MapGIS 6.7, and Photoshop 6.0 for Windows.
We recorded a total of 50 species of traditional medicinal plants grown at various altitudes on Mt. Taibai. Forty species were found at altitudes of 1000–1400 m, 23 species at altitudes of 1400–1800 m, 18 species at altitudes of 600–1000 m, 15 species at altitudes of 1800–2200 m, 14 species at altitudes of 2200–2600 m, 7 species at altitudes of 2600–3000 m, and 6 species at altitudes of 3000–3500 m (Figure
Distribution frequencies (number of species) of medicine plants.
All of these species were angiosperms, with 46 genera belonging to 32 families. There were 41 species of herb (82%), 6 species of shrub (12%), and 3 species of climber (6%; see Figure
Percentage distributions of medicinal plant species according to life form.
Medicinal formulations can be prepared from roots, rhizomes, seeds, leaves, flowers, fruits, stems, or the whole plant. In this study, the most commonly used part was the whole plant (27 species), followed by roots (18 species), fruits (11 species), seeds (7 species), leaves (5 species), rhizomes (5 species), stems (3 species), and flowers (3 species) (Figure
Use frequencies (number of species) of different plant parts in traditional medicine preparation.
Gastrointestinal disorders, coughs, colds, urological problems, dermatological infections, heart diseases, fever, headaches, liver complaints, weakness, dizziness, respiratory problems, ophthalmological problems, cuts, and wounds were treated using traditional medicinal plants. Coughs and colds were treated with the greatest diversity of plant species (22 species), followed by urological problems (19 species) and gastrointestinal disorders (17 species). Respiratory problems, heart disease, and toothache were treated with the lowest diversity of plant species (5, 2, and 2, resp.) (Figure
Medicinal plants used to cure various ailments.
Ailment | Plants |
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Cough and cold | |
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Kidney and urethra problems | |
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Gastrointestinal disorders | |
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Cuts and wounds | |
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Dermatological infections | |
| |
Fever and headache | |
| |
Weakness and dizziness | |
| |
Menstrual disorders | |
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Ophthalmological problems | |
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Liver complaint | |
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Respiratory problems | |
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Heart diseases | |
| |
Toothache | |
Number of remedies used for various ailments.
We found that 85 medicinal formulations were prepared using the 50 traditional medicinal plants identified in this study. Methods/applications included decoctions, pastes, juices, chewing, steaming, and medicated baths (Table
Common forms of preparation methods for remedies made of medicinal plants.
Preparation method | Description |
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Paste | Fresh plant parts are crushed with a stone pestle and mortar. |
Juice | Obtained by squeezing or crushing plant parts. Sometimes requires addition of other liquids for dilution. |
Chewing | Fresh plant parts are chewed. |
Steamed dew | Drugs are extracted from medicinal raw materials by distillation and then modulated into distilled liquid for drinking, wiping, or other uses. |
Decoction | Plant parts are boiled in water and the extract (crude drug) is used. |
Medicate bath | Fresh flowers or other plant parts are immersed in hot water for bathing. |
Use frequencies (number of medicinal formulations) of different remedy preparation techniques.
The level of informant agreement was medium–high (mean
Informant consensus factor (
Ailment | Number of taxa ( | Number of use reports ( | Informant consensus factor ( |
---|---|---|---|
Cough and cold | 22 | 54 | 0.60 |
Kidney and urethra problems | 19 | 43 | 0.57 |
Gastrointestinal disorders | 17 | 47 | 0.65 |
Cuts and wounds | 14 | 41 | 0.68 |
Dermatological infections | 10 | 25 | 0.63 |
Fever and headache | 9 | 21 | 0.60 |
Weakness and dizziness | 8 | 18 | 0.59 |
Menstrual disorders | 7 | 15 | 0.57 |
Ophthalmological problems | 6 | 14 | 0.62 |
Liver complaint | 6 | 17 | 0.69 |
Respiratory problems | 5 | 10 | 0.56 |
Heart diseases | 2 | 7 | 0.83 |
Toothache | 2 | 9 | 0.88 |
Total | 127 | 321 |
By collecting phytochemical and pharmacological data on the 50 traditional medicinal plants based on questionnaire data from local residents, and comparing this with bioefficacy data from literature reports, we found that the use of traditional medicinal plants in Mt. Taibai was consistent with known phytochemical or pharmacological properties in 84% of cases. In total, 28 medicinal species showed complete correspondence and 14 (
Comparison of local use and phytochemical/pharmacological properties of medicinal plants.
Species | The main usage in local place (present study) | Phytochemical/pharmacological properties (literature review) | Local use coherent with known phytochemical/pharmacological properties |
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| Whole plant soup is taken for enteritis and constipation | Alkaloid extract may possess anti-inflammatory properties [ | Yes |
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| Seeds and flowers are applied on heat-clearing and detoxifying | Containing more than seven kinds of flavonoids [ | Unknown |
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| Whole plant and rhizomes are used for wounds, weakness, and dizziness | Antiallergic effect [ | Yes |
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| Whole plant is taken for respiratory and kidney problems | Anti-inflammatory and virucidal effects [ | Yes |
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| Whole plant is used for fever, cough, and urethra problem | Antibacterial, antihypertensive, and antiphlogistic properties [ | Yes |
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| Rhizomes are taken for wounds, cough, and cold | Antioxidative activity [ | Partial |
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| Whole plant is applied on dermatological infections and gastrointestinal disorders | Antimutagenicity and antigenotoxic activity [ | Partial |
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| Used for hepatitis and seeds are applied on diarrhea or eye diseases | Hypoglycemia and lipids regulating effects [ | Yes |
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| Whole plant is used for kidney and urethra problems | Diuretic, antihypertensive, antibacterial, and antioxidant effect [ | Yes |
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| Fruits are taken for dyspepsia, coughs, diuresis, and stomachache | Antioxidant, hepatoprotective, and diuretic properties [ | Yes |
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| Roots are taken for cough, weakness, and dizziness | Antifungal and immunostimulating activities [ | Yes |
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| Leaves are applied on wind chill and colds | Bacteriostatic and antifungal activities [ | Yes |
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| Fruits are applied for eye diseases, menstrual disorders, and liver problems | Having several effects on central neural system, sex function, and muscular system [ | Partial |
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| Used for dermatological infections | Analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects [ | Yes |
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| Roots are taken for cough and menstrual disorders | Hypoglycemic activity and immunocompetence of paeoniflorin [ | Partial |
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| Whole plant and seeds are applied for kidney and urethra problems | Antibacterial and antifungal activities [ | Partial |
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| Whole plant an roots are taken for cuts and wounds | Improving the immune function and relieving swelling and pain [ | Yes |
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| Used for diarrhea, hepatitis, and red swollen and painful eye | Antiviral and immunomodulatory effects [ | Yes |
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| Roots are used for cuts and wounds | Antimicrobial activity [ | Yes |
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| Used for gastrointestinal disorders, colds, and fever | Anti-inflammatory activity [ | Yes |
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| Roots are taken for cough, heart diseases, and lubricating the intestines | Having effect on circulatory system and respiratory system [ | Yes |
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| Roots are taken for palpitation, coughs, and physical weakness | Hypoglycemic effects [ | Partial |
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| Used for febrile pain, colds, and toothache | Reduction of body temperature and potentiation of hypnotic activity [ | Yes |
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| Used for Gastrointestinal disorders, wounds, and respiratory problems | Contains tannins [ | Unknown |
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| Used for wounds and dermatological infections | Seldom report on physiological activity | Unknown |
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| Whole plant and roots are taken for wounds and gastrointestinal disorders | Antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities [ | Yes |
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| Root are used for dermatological infections and gastrointestinal disorders | Contains matrine [ | Unknown |
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| Used for menstrual disorders and liver complaint | Contains sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes, benzene, and other compounds [ | Partial |
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| Used for headache, arthralgia, and gastrointestinal disorders | Anti-inflammatory analgesic activity [ | Yes |
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| Whole plant is taken for wounds, heart diseases, and dermatological infections | Contains soyasaponin, triterpenoid, glycoside daucosterol, beta-sitosterol, and other compounds [ | Partial |
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| Leaves and stems are applied for cough, fever, weakness, and kidney problems | Contains ethyl caffeate, caffeic acid, protocatechuic acid, betulinic acid, | Partial |
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| Roots are applied for cold, headache, and toothache | Antinociceptive effects [ | Yes |
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| Fruits are taken for coughs, colds, and gastrointestinal disorders | Antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties [ | Yes |
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| Whole plant is taken for stomachache, headache, hot eyes, and faucitis | Gastric antiulcerogenic effects [ | Partial |
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| Used for cough, wounds, and menstrual disorders | Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities [ | Yes |
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| Used for colds, fever, vomiting, and menstrual disorder | Antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities [ | Yes |
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| Seeds are applied for fending off the cold and coughs and nourishing | Contains flavonoids [ | Unknown |
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| Roots are taken for weakness and kidney problems | Contains more than eight c21 steroidal glycosides [ | Partial |
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| Used for cough, dizziness, and urethra problems | Anticancer activity and improving immune function [ | Partial |
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| Whole plant is used for wounds, dermatological infections, and menstrual disorders | Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity [ | Yes |
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| Used for menstrual disorders and kidney and urethra problems | Seldom report on physiological activity | Unknown |
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| Whole plant and roots are taken for cough, fever, and headache | Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities [ | Yes |
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| Fruits are applied on invigorating stomach, coughs, nourishing, cystolith, and kidney stone | Hepatoprotective activity [ | Partial |
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| Fruit juice is applied for malaria, diarrhea, and removal of black spots | Antioxidant and antiproliferative activity [ | Yes |
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| Whole plant is used for fever, cough, and gastrointestinal disorders | More than twenty components were isolated and many flavonoids were identified [ | Partial |
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| Used for phlegm, menstrual disorder, and diuresis | Many chemical compounds were detected [ | Unknown |
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| Whole plant is used for cough, dermatological infections, and gastrointestinal disorders | Antihyperlipidemia, anti-inflammatory activities and protecting stomach [ | Yes |
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| Used for cough, kidney, and urethra problems | Contains high content of chlorogenic acid [ | Unknown |
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| Used for fever, intestinal tract disease, and skin disease | Antibacterial and antioxidant activities [ | Yes |
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| Fruits are taken for coughs, fever, and sore swollen throat | Anti-inflammatory activity [ | Yes |
By comparing information on the use of traditional medicinal plants with the Chinese Materia Medica and other related research, we found that the properties of many of the identified species exhibited similar results. This shows that the use of traditional medicinal plants is self-consistent. This self-consistent knowledge of traditional medicinal plant species is extremely valuable and may promote research into the culture of traditional remedies and expedite the development of medicine. Therefore, knowledge of traditional medicinal plants is significant and should be conserved. Further development and utilization and effective cultivation and preparation methods, as well as education and regulation, are important strategies that can help exploit the benefits of these medicinal plants. Against this background, we make the following proposals.
First, regulations should be issued by government to control and standardize the use and trade of traditional medicinal plants. Second, the traditional knowledge of the use of medicinal plant is very important, but local residents may not take this seriously unless they realize the value of these traditional medicinal plants. Therefore, effective communication/publicity is important. Third, improvements should be made to the market for medical plants. Trade is an important factor in the use of medicinal plants, and protection for traders is therefore important. To promote economic development of local medicinal plants, protection and production should be taken into consideration. If such regulation is impractical, medicinal botanical gardens may be a good option. Training and demonstrations are important not only to preserve the germplasm resources of wild medicinal plants, but also to improve publicity. Finally, support from government is an important factor, as the implementation of the above strategies requires support from government. Only government has the capabilities to ensure sustainable development of these medicinal plant resources.
Mt. Taibai is rich in medicinal plant resources, and the local people possess a systematic and self-consistent knowledge of these native medicinal plants, including identification, application, and treatment modalities. Altitudes in the range of 1000–1400 m were found to be most promising for sample collection. Herbs were the most widely used plant species because of their abundance and the relative ease of collection, preparation, and storage. The most frequently used parts of plants were roots. Coughs and colds were the ailments that were treated with the greatest diversity of medicinal plant species. Decoction was the most widely used formulation.
The level of informant agreement was medium–high (mean
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The authors declare that there are no competing interests regarding the publication of this paper.
This work was supported by the program from the Special Fund for Forestry Scientific Research in the Public Interest of China (201504320).