Malaria is one of the most rampant diseases today not only in Uganda but also throughout Africa. Hence, it needs very close attention as it can be severe, causing many deaths, especially due to the rising prevalence of pathogenic resistance to current antimalarial drugs. The majority of the Ugandan population relies on traditional herbal medicines for various health issues. Thus, herein, we review various plant resources used to treat malaria across communities in Uganda so as to provide comprehensive and valuable ethnobotanical data about these plants. Approximately 182 plant species from 63 different plant families are used for malaria treatment across several communities in Uganda, of which 112 plant species have been investigated for antimalarial activities and 96% of the plant species showing positive results. Some plants showed very strong antimalarial activities and could be investigated further for the identification and validation of potentially therapeutic antimalarial compounds. There is no record of an investigation of antimalarial activity for approximately 39% of the plant species used for malaria treatment, yet these plants could be potential sources for potent antimalarial remedies. Thus, the review provides guidance for areas of further research on potential plant resources that could be sources of compounds with therapeutic properties for the treatment of malaria. Some of the plants were investigated for antimalarial activities, and their efficacy, toxicity, and safety aspects still need to be studied.
Malaria, a dangerous and life-threatening disease caused by
Illustration of some common symptoms of malaria.
In different parts of the world, the use of herbs and herbal extracts in the management and treatment of malaria is very common since herbs are cheap and readily available besides being effective. In fact, the use of herbal medicine for treatment worldwide is on the rise. Over 80% of the Ugandan population relies directly on herbal plants for their health care primarily [
This review was aimed at providing comprehensive ethnobotanical information about various plant resources with antimalarial properties that are primarily used to manage and treat malaria across communities in Uganda, based on which further evaluation of these plants such as those of their efficacy and safety for the treatment of malaria may be based.
In the review, the data search processes employed by Komakech et al. [
Malaria in Uganda is highly endemic because the climate is favorable for its consistently stable and year-round transmission in about 99% of the country, with the country’s entire population being at risk for contraction [
Malaria prevalence in Uganda (modified from [12]).
Herbal plants are extremely rich in phytochemicals that are highly efficacious in the treatment of malaria, such as sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene lactones, fluoroquinolones, chalcones, flavanones, phenolics, quinones, coumarins, and alkaloids (Table
Herbs used in the treatment of malaria in Uganda.
Plant family | Scientific name | Local name | Part used | Growth form | Mode of preparation | Dose and mode of administration for malaria | Status of antimalarial/antiplasmodial activity investigation | Other ailments treated | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acanthaceae |
|
Nalongo/quinine | Leaves/whole plant | Herb | Decoction | About 120 ml every 8 hours for a week | Investigated | Diabetes, yellow fever, diarrhea | [ |
|
Kwiniini omuganda | Leaves/twig | Herb | Decoction | Orally taken, dose not specified | No record | [ | ||
|
Erazi | Leaves | Decoction | Orally taken, dose not specified | No record | Abdominal pain | [ | ||
|
Kasaamusaamu/ntudde buleku | Leaves/whole plant | Climber | Decoction | About 120 ml every 8 hours for a week | No record | False teeth | [ | |
Alliaceae |
|
Katungulu | Bulb | Herb | No record | [ | |||
Aloeaceae |
|
Kigagi | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | A glassful once a day for 7 days | Investigated | Candida | [ |
|
Kigagi | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Orally taken, dose not specified | Investigated | [ | ||
|
Kigagi | Leaves | Herb | Decoction/infusion | Orally taken, dose not specified | No record | [ | ||
|
Kigagi | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Orally taken, dose not specified | Investigated | Wounds, digestive disorders, rheumatic arthritis | [ | |
|
Kigagi | Leaves/root | Herb | Decoction | Orally taken, dose not specified | No record | [ | ||
Amaranthaceae |
|
Bbuga | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass every 24 hours for 7 days | No record | [ | |
Anacardiaceae |
|
Muyembe gwakona | Leaves/bark | Tree | Decoction | 4 and 3 teaspoons after every 8 hours for adults and children, respectively, for a week | Investigated | Diarrhea, dysentery, body pain, venereal diseases, cough, syphilis | [ |
|
Omesheshe | Leaves | Shrub | Decoction | Orally taken, dose not specified | Investigated | [ | ||
|
Kakwasokwaso/tebudda | Leaves | Shrub | Decoction | Half a glass every 8 hours for 7 days | No record | Skin rush, erectile dysfunction | [ | |
Apiaceae |
|
Omumemena | Leaves/roots | Herb | Decoction | Orally taken, dose not specified | No record | [ | |
|
Kabo Kabakyala/mbutamu | Leaves/whole plant | Herb | Decoction | 4 teaspoons thrice a day for 4 days | Investigated | [ | ||
Apocynaceae |
|
Mubajangalabi | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Orally taken, dose not specified | Investigated | [ | |
|
Muyunza, ekamuriei | Roots | Herb | Decoction | Orally taken, dose not specified | Investigated | Epilepsy, fever, cough, syphilis, measles, dysentery | [ | |
|
Omuyonza | Roots | Decoction | Orally taken, dose not specified | Investigated | [ | |||
|
Sekagya | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | About 120 ml every 8 hours for a week | Investigated | [ | ||
Araceae |
|
Ntangawuzi yomukibira | Roots | Herb | Decoction | About 120 ml once a day for a week | No record | [ | |
Aristolochiaceae |
|
Musuja welaba/nakasero | Seeds/sap | Vine | Steeped in water and drunk | A glassful once a day | Investigated | Abdominal pain, East coast fever | [ |
|
Kankapu | Stem | Climber | Infusion | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Wounds, skin diseases, snake bites | [ | |
Asclepiadaceae |
|
Kafumbo | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass daily for a week | No record | [ | |
Asphodelaceae |
|
Kigagi/alovera | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | 1 teaspoon and 1 tablespoon 3 times a day for children and adults, respectively, for a week | Investigated | Stomach ache | [ |
Asteraceae |
|
Namirembe | Whole plant/leaves | Herb | Decoction | A glassful thrice a day for 7 days | Investigated | Worms, weakness in pregnancy | [ |
|
Sweet anne | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Fever | [ | |
|
Pasile | Leaves | Herb | Infusion | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Fever | [ | |
|
Makayi, ekarwe | Whole plant/leaves/roots | Herb | Decoction | 8 teaspoons 3 times a day for a week | Investigated | Abdominal aches, measles, diarrhea, wounds, induction of appetite | [ | |
|
Okellokello | Leaves | Shrub | Decoction | 1 teaspoon and 1 tablespoon 3 times a day for children and adults, respectively, for a week; bath-leaves squeezed and added to bathing water | Investigated | Flu, skin rush, ear infections | [ | |
|
Ehongwa | Leaves, flower | Herb | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Pregnancy disorders, prehepatic jaundice | [ | |
|
Sere/labika | Whole plant/leaves | Herb | Decoction/fresh leaf extract | 4 teaspoons thrice a day for 4 days | Investigated | Diarrhea, wounds | [ | |
|
Ekyogayanja | Leaves | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Fever, ague, paludism | [ | ||
|
Ndasha | Leaves | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Stomach ache, body pain, anemia, respiratory problems | [ | ||
|
Kafumbe | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | About 120 ml once a day for a week | No record | Headache | [ | |
|
Kati kati | Leaves | Herb | No record | Wounds, sore throat, ringworms | [ | |||
|
Kitonto | Leaves | Herb | Honey added to decoction | 2 teaspoons thrice a day for 7 days | Investigated | [ | ||
|
Nakate | Whole plant | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass once a day for a week | No record | [ | ||
|
Ekiterankuba | Leaves | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Stomach ache, HIV/AIDS opportunistic infections | [ | ||
|
Ekizimya-muriro | Leaves | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Febrile convulsions | [ | ||
|
Makaayi | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Stomach ache, body odour, yellow fever | [ | |
|
Omuneera | Leaves | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | [ | |||
|
Kafugankande | Whole plant/leaves/roots | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass thrice a day for a week | Investigated | Cough, abdominal disorders, chest pain | [ | |
|
Apunait | Leaves | Herb | Infusion | 1 teaspoon and 1 tablespoon 3 times a day for children and adults, respectively, for a week | Investigated | Wounds, skin diseases, diabetes, ear infections, wounds | [ | |
|
Kyaryaho | Roots | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Wounds, stomach ache | [ | ||
|
Omusununu | Leaves | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Fever, indigestion | [ | ||
|
Entahutara | Leaves | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Stomach ache, scars, anemia, diarrhea | [ | ||
|
Kawunyira | Whole plant/leaves | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass thrice a day for a week | Investigated | Flu, headache, convulsions | [ | |
|
Kimyula | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass thrice a day for a week | Investigated | Diabetes, abdominal pain | [ | |
|
Nyakajuma | Leaves/flowers | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Diarrhea, dizziness | [ | ||
|
Mululuza/labwori | Whole plant/roots | Shrub | Decoction | Half a glass 2 times a day for 5 days | Investigated | Headache, stomach ache, burns, baths | [ | |
|
Kayayana | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass thrice a day for a week | Investigated | Fever, vomiting, inflammation | [ | |
|
Kaluluza kasajja | Roots/leaves | Shrub | Fresh leaf extract/root decoction | 2 teaspoons thrice a day for 7 days | Investigated | Abdominal pain, cough, migraine headache, delayed delivery | [ | |
Bignoniaceae |
|
Musambya/muzanganda | Roots | Tree | Decoction | A glassful once a day for 7 days | Investigated | Cough, diarrhea | [ |
|
Kifabakazi | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass 3 times a day for 5 days | Investigated | Increased vaginal fluid, skin infection, infertility, hernia | [ | |
Caesalpiniaceae |
|
Mukyula | Leaves | Shrub | Decoction | About 120 ml every 8 hours for a week | Investigated | [ | |
|
Epeduru lo didi | Leaves | Herb | Infusion | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Labour induction, hypertension, retained placenta | [ | |
|
Omurama | Leaves/roots | Investigated | [ | |||||
|
Gasiya | Leaves | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass twice a day for 5 days | Investigated | [ | ||
Caesalpinioideae |
|
Kasagalansansi | Roots | Herb | Infusion | Investigated | Stomach pains | [ | |
Canelliaceae |
|
Omukuzanume | Bark/leaves | Tree | Decoction/powder swallowed with banana | Half a glass once a day for a week | Investigated | Toothache, flu, skin diseases, asthma, stomach ache, body and muscle pain | [ |
Caricaceae |
|
Paapali essajja | Leaves | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass twice a day for 3 days | Investigated | Snake bite, sterility, cough, cancer, body pain, induces labour | [ |
Celastraceae |
|
Echomai | Roots | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Toothache, skin diseases, chest pain, wound, fever | [ |
Chenopodiaceae |
|
Kawuna wuna | Leaves | Investigated | Headache, epilepsy | [ | |||
|
Namuvu | Leaves | No record | Oral wounds, skin rush, toothache | [ | ||||
Combretaceae |
|
Ndagi | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass once a day for 3 days | Investigated | Cough, | [ |
Crassulaceae |
|
Kisanasana | Leaves | Herb | No record | [ | |||
Cucurbitaceae |
|
Kasuunsa | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass once a day for 7 days | Investigated | Abdominal pain | [ |
|
Orwihura | Leaves | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Vomiting, baths, cough, flue, worms | [ | ||
Dracaenaceae |
|
Kajjolyenjovu | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass thrice a day for a week | No record | Scars, cough, syphilis, kidney stones, snake bites | [ |
Ebenaceae |
|
Emusi | Roots | Shrub | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Ringworms, swollen legs | [ |
Euphorbiaceae |
|
Luzibaziba | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass once a day for 7 days | Investigated | Shaking body | [ |
|
Katazamiti | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass thrice a day for a week | Investigated | [ | ||
|
Omubarama | Leaves | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Fever, diarrhea | [ | ||
|
Ookota | Roots/bark | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Tuberculosis, stomach ache, cough, fever, asthma | [ | |
|
Lukandwa/mukandula | Leaves | Shrub | Decoction | Half a glass 3 times a day for a week | Investigated | Miscarriage, chest pains, infertility in women | [ | |
|
Kirowa | Leaves | Shrub | Investigated | Tooth decay, headache, weakness in pregnancy | [ | |||
|
Kyeganza | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass 3 times a day for a 5 days | No record | [ | ||
|
Nakitembe | Leaves | Shrub | Decoction | Half a glass 3 times a day for a 7 days | Investigated | [ | ||
|
Musasa | Back | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | [ | ||
|
Ekiziranfu | Bark | Decoction | Used as enema | No record | Jaundice, measles, gastrointestinal disorders, enema | [ | ||
Fabaceae |
|
Ebinyobwa | Leaves | Fresh extract | Oral, dose not specified | No record | [ | ||
|
Entondaigwa | Leaves | Shrub | Fresh extract | 100 ml once a day for a week | Investigated | Diarrhea, body pain | [ | |
|
Kijjebejebbe | Whole shoot | Shrub | Fresh extract | Daily bath | No record | High blood pressure | [ | |
|
Alayo | Leaves | Herb | Fresh extract | 1 teaspoon and 1 tablespoon 3 times a day for children and adults, respectively, for a week | No record | Stomach ache | [ | |
|
Mwolola | Leaves | Tree | Decoction | Investigated | Oral wounds, body weakness, wounds, skin infections | [ | ||
|
Mwolola | Bark | Tree | Decoction | 4 and 3 teaspoons after every 8 hours for adults and children, respectively, for a week | Investigated | [ | ||
|
Girikiti/lacoro | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass 3 times a day for a 5 days | Investigated | Fever, leprosy, burns, tuberculosis, toothache, syphilis | [ | |
|
Bajjangala | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass 3 times a day for a week | No record | Wounds, candida | [ | |
|
Omushoroza | Roots/bark | No record | Abdominal pain | [ | ||||
|
Namasumi | Twig | Herb | Infusion | Oral, dose not specified | No record | [ | ||
|
Omunyazabashumba | Leaves/roots | Shrub | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Cough | [ | |
|
Akihabukuru | Leaves | No record | Impotence, dizziness | [ | ||||
|
Omukongorani/kikakala | Leaves/whole plant | Herb | Decoction | One teaspoon thrice a day for 4 days | No record | Fever | [ | |
|
Omutegansi | Flower | No record | Labour induction | [ | ||||
|
Mucuula | Shrub | Leaves | Fresh extract | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Prolonged embryo in uterus | [ | |
|
Omugabagaba/kivumuzi | Herb | Leaves, twig | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Change of sex of child | [ | |
|
Garcia | Roots | Tree | Fresh extract | A cupful (500 ml) once a day for 3 days | Investigated | Abdominal pain, sore throat | [ | |
|
Cwaa/nkoge | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Convulsions, fever | [ | |
Flacourtiaceae |
|
Ekalepulepu | Roots | Herb | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Syphilis, skin problems, wounds, headache, impotence, stomach ache | [ |
|
Omwatanshare | Leaves | Shrub | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | [ | ||
Hypericaceae |
|
Mukaabiransiko/mulirira | Bark | Tree | Decoction | 2 tablespoons thrice a day for 3 days | Investigated | Yellow fever | [ |
Labiatae |
|
Bongoloza | Whole plant | Herb | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | [ | |
Lamiaceae |
|
Ntulagi | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Quarter a glass thrice a day for 3 days | No record | [ | |
|
Kitinwa | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass once a day for a week | Investigated | Stomach ache | [ | |
|
Kikonge | Leaves | Shrub | Decoction | Half a glass daily for a week | Investigated | Syphilis, intestinal problems, induction of labour | [ | |
|
Kisekeseke | Roots/leaves | Shrub | Fresh leaf extract/root decoction | Half a glass daily for a 5 days | Investigated | Diabetes | [ | |
|
Kamunye | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass 3 times a day for a week; bath | Investigated | Ulcers | [ | |
|
Kifumufumu | Whole plant | Herb | Decoction | A glassful thrice a day for 3 days | Investigated | Headache | [ | |
|
Emopim | Leaves | Herb | Infusion | Half a glass 3 times a day for a week | Investigated | Fever, eye cataract | [ | |
|
Mujaaja | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass 3 times a day for 5 days | Investigated | Wounds, ear infections, chest pain | [ | |
|
Omwenyi | Leaves | Decoction | Half a glass 3 times a day for a week | Investigated | Abdominal pain | [ | ||
|
Ebiriri omutano | Whole plant/leaves, roots/stem | Herb | Infusion | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Fever, heart disease, snake bite | [ | |
|
Kibwankulata | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | 4 and 2 teaspoons thrice a day for adults and children, respectively, for a week | No record | [ | ||
|
Ekizera | Leaves | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | [ | |||
|
Rosemary | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass twice a day for 5 days | Investigated | Chest pain | [ | |
|
Kyewamala | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | One teaspoon twice a day for a week | Investigated | [ | ||
Lauranceae |
|
Ovakedo | Leaves | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Fungal and bacterial infection, high blood pressure, intestinal worms and parasites | [ |
Loranthaceae |
|
Enzirugaze | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | A glass daily for 7 days | No record | [ | |
Malvaceae |
|
Nantayitwako musota | Leaves | Shrub | Decoction | Half a glass thrice a day for 7 days | No record | High blood pressure | [ |
Meliaceae |
|
Neem | Leaves | Tree | Decoction | About 120 ml once a day for 7 days | Investigated | Dental decay/ache, yellow fever, cough, skin diseases, diabetes, nausea | [ |
|
Omukeete | Leaves/bark | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass twice a day for 7 days | No record | [ | ||
|
Elira | Leaves | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Fever, skin disease, itching wounds, parasitic worms | [ | |
Menispermaceae |
|
Kavawala | Leaves/whole plant | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass twice a day for 5 days | Investigated | [ | |
Mimosaceae |
|
Ekisim | Roots | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Diarrhea, syphilis, dysentery | [ |
|
Investigated | [ | |||||||
|
Etiriri | Roots | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Dysentery, epilepsy, cough | [ | |
|
Lugavu | Bark | Tree | Decoction | 1 and 3 teaspoons thrice a day for children and adults, respectively, for a week. | Investigated | Skin diseases, diarrhea | [ | |
|
Nongo | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass once a day for a week | Investigated | Yellow fever, anemia, fungal infections of scalp | [ | |
|
Mulongo | Bark | Tree | Investigated | [ | ||||
|
Mpewere | Bark | Tree | Dried, powdered, added to boiling water | Half a glass once a day for a week | No record | [ | ||
Moraceae |
|
Kirundu | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass once a day for a week | Investigated | Weakness in pregnancy, headache | [ |
|
Tree | Investigated | Gonorrhea | [ | |||||
|
Muwo | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass thrice a day for 7 days | No record | [ | ||
|
Mivule | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass thrice a day for 7 days | Investigated | Burns, fresh cuts, skin rush | [ | |
Moringaceae |
|
Moringa | Leaves/roots | Tree | Decoction/chewed raw | A glassful thrice a day for 7 days; a handful of fresh leaves chewed 3 times for 4 days | Investigated | Joint pains | [ |
Musaceae |
|
Kabalagala | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Jaundice, prolonged embryo in uterus | [ |
Myricaceae |
|
Omujeeje | Leaves | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Vomiting, diarrhea | [ | |
Myristicaceae |
|
Lunaba | Leaves | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass a day | Investigated | [ | |
Myrsinaceae |
|
Kiwondowondo | Leaves | Shrub | Decoction | Half a glass thrice a day for 7 days | Investigated | Febrile convulsions | [ |
Myrtaceae |
|
Kalitunsi | Leaves | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass a day | No record | Cough | [ |
|
Mupeera | Leaves | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass thrice a day for a week | Investigated | Bloody diarrhea, typhoid, wounds, cough | [ | |
|
Mugeege | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Dry cough, skin rush, wounds | [ | |
|
Jambula | Leaves | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass thrice a day for a week | Investigated | Cough | [ | |
|
Kalunginsanvu | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | [ | ||
Papillionaceae |
|
Ekunguri | Roots | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Labour pains, headaches | [ |
|
Ederut | Roots | Shrub | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Pneumonia, snake bite | [ | |
Passifloraceae |
|
Akatunda | Leaves | Herb | Fresh extract | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Diarrhea, cough | [ |
Pittosporaceae |
|
Not defined | Not defined | Shrub | No record | [ | |||
|
Mubajjankon | Leaves | Shrub | Infusion/decoction | Half a glass a day for a week | No record | [ | ||
Poaceae |
|
Kisubi | Leaves | Grass | Decoction | 120 ml every after 8 hours for a week | Investigated | Dental caries, influenza, cough, cancer, indigestion, fever | [ |
|
Lumbugu | Leaves | Grass | Decoction | 120 ml every after 8 hours for a week | No record | [ | ||
|
Lusenke | Roots | Grass | Dried, powdered, added boiling water/decoction | 120 ml once a day for a week | No record | Abdominal pain | [ | |
|
Luyange lwakasoli | Flowers/husks | Cereal grass | Decoction | 120 ml every after 8 hours for a week | Investigated | Boosts immunity | [ | |
Polygalaceae |
|
Eliloi | Roots | Shrub | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Skin diseases, measles, cough, hernia, diarrhea | [ |
|
Musizi | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Half a glass thrice a day for a week | No record | [ | ||
Portulacaceae |
|
Mpozia | Leaves | Herb | Oral, dose not specified | No record | [ | ||
Rosaceae |
|
Ntaseesa or Ngwabuzito | Bark | Tree | Decoction | 2 and 3 teaspoons thrice a day for children and adults, respectively, for a week | Investigated | Fainting, cancer | [ |
|
Nkenene | Leaves | Herb | Decoction | Half a glass once a day for a week | No record | [ | ||
Rubiaceae |
|
Mwanyi | Leaves | Shrub | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | [ | |
|
Muziku | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | [ | ||
|
Ishagara | Leaves | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Fever | [ | ||
|
Matugunda | Bark | Shrub | Decoction | 2 and 3 teaspoons thrice a day for children and adults, respectively, for a week | No record | [ | ||
Rutaceae |
|
Omuqugwa | Roots | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Weight loss induction, cancer, skin diseases | [ |
|
Omucungwa/cungwa | Roots | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Vomiting, cough, diabetes | [ | |
|
Omuzo | Aerial parts | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Body cleanser | [ | ||
|
Kawule | Roots | Climber | Decoction | Half a glass thrice a day for a week | Investigated | Cough, abdominal pain | [ | |
|
Ntale ya ddungu | Roots | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Body swellings, stomach ache, cough, fever, chest pain | [ | |
|
Mutatembwa/munyenye | Bark | Tree | Decoction drunk | Half a glass thrice a day for a week | No record | [ | ||
Salicaceae |
|
Omwatanshare | Leaves | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | [ | ||
Sapindaceae |
|
Nkuzanyana | Bark | Tree | Decoction drunk | Half a glass twice a day for a week | Investigated | Wounds, vomiting, skin diseases, fibroids, cervical cancer | [ |
Sapotaceae |
|
Nkunya | Bark | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | [ | |
Scrophulariaceae |
|
Kakulunkanyi | Whole plant | Herb | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | [ | |
Simaroubaceae |
|
Ekeroi | Roots/leaves | Shrub | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Fever, wounds, syphilis, snake bite, abdominal pain | [ |
Solanaceae |
|
Amadudu | Leaves | Herb | Decoction drunk | Half a glass thrice a day for a week | No record | Ulcers, stomach ache, chest pain | [ |
|
Ntuntunu | Leaves | Herb | Decoction drunk | Half a glass 3 times a day for a week | No record | Vomiting, febrile convulsions, fainting | [ | |
|
Nsugga | Leaves | Herb | Decoction drunk | Half a glass 3 times a day for a week | Investigated | Ear infection, headache, epilepsy, STI, diarrhea | [ | |
Tiliaceae |
|
Musombankoko | Roots | Shrub | Decoction drunk | Half a glass once a day for a week | No record | [ | |
Ulmaceae |
|
Akasisa | Leaves | Tree | Decoction drunk | Half a glass a day for a week | Investigated | [ | |
Umbelliferae |
|
Ematule | Roots/leaves | Tree | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | No record | Measles, body swelling | [ |
Verbenaceae |
|
Kanpanga | Leaves | Shrub | Decoction | Oral, dose not specified | Investigated | Wounds, measles, tuberculosis, pneumonia, snake bite, chest pain | [ |
|
Omuhukye | Leaves | Decoction | Orally taken, dose not specified | Investigated | Yellow fever, ringworms, muscle pain, prolapsed rectum | [ | ||
Zingiberaceae |
|
Binjali | Rhizome | Herb | Fresh extract | 30 ml thrice a day for 3 days | Investigated | [ |
Some herbs used in malaria prevention amongst communities in Uganda.
Plant family | Plant species | Local name | Plant form | Mode of use to prevent malaria | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cleomaceae |
|
Akeyo | Herb | Leaves are cooked and eaten as a prophylactic measure | [ |
Cucurbitaceae |
|
Acuga | Scrambler | Leaves cooked and pasted with groundnut then eaten | [ |
Euphorbiaceae |
|
Gwana | Herb | Tuber peelings are dried then burnt in house so that smoke repels mosquitoes | [ |
Fabaceae |
|
Alayo | Herb | Leaves are cooked and eaten as a prophylactic measure | [ |
Lamiaceae |
|
Yat cola | Herb | Leaves dried and burnt so that smoke chases away mosquitoes; bath infusion to repel mosquito | [ |
|
Rosemary | Herb | Leaves are cooked and eaten as a prophylactic measure; planted around the house to repel mosquitoes | [ | |
Malvaceae |
|
Pama | Shrub | Cotton lint is dried and burnt so that smoke keeps away mosquitoes | [ |
Musaceae |
|
Labolo kwon | Shrub | Fruit peeling are dried and burnt in the house to produce smoke that keeps away mosquitoes | [ |
Myrtaceae |
|
Kalitunsi | Tree | Leave and branches are burnt to repel mosquitoes | [ |
Poaceae |
|
Kisubi | Grass | Planted around the house to repel mosquitoes; taken in tea as a prophylactic measure | [ |
Solanaceae |
|
Ocuga | Herb | Leaves are cooked and eaten as a prophylactic measure | [ |
The mechanism of action of artemisinin is widely debated but the most accepted theory is that of activation of the molecule by heme, which enables it to produce free radicals that then destroy the proteins needed for parasite survival [
Cinchona tree bark, from which quinine was isolated, has been used to treat malaria since 1632 [
Most of the plants used in the treatment of malaria in Uganda contain alkaloids greatly implicated in antiplasmodial activity (Table
Antiplasmodial/antimalarial activities of investigated plants used for malaria treatment in Uganda and their active chemical constituents.
Plant family | Scientific name | Part used | Extracting solvent | Means of traditional extraction | Report on antiplasmodial, IC50 ( |
Active chemical constituents | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acanthaceae |
|
Shoot | Methanol | Hot water | 69.6 (chloroquine sensitive, K39) | Justetonin (indole(3,2-b) quinoline alkaloid glycoside) | [ |
Water | >100 (chloroquine sensitive, K39) | ||||||
Aloeaceae |
|
Leaves | Ether | Cold water; mashing; hot water | Extract had anti- |
Anthraquinones, aloin, lectins, | [ |
|
Leaves | Methanol | Hot water | 87.7 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 67.8 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Anthrone, C-glucoside homonataloin, anthraquinones, aloin, lectins | [ | |
|
Leaves | Dichloromethane | Water | 21 (chloroquine sensitive, D10) | Mannans, polymannans, anthraquinones, aloin, lectins, anthrones | [ | |
Water | >100 (chloroquine sensitive, D10) | ||||||
Anacardiaceae |
|
Leaves | Chloroform:Methanol (1 : 1) | Hot water | Inhibited growth of |
Phenolics | [ |
Stem bark | Ethanol | >50 (chloroquine resistant, FcB1) | |||||
|
Leaves | Ethanol | Hot water | 6.6 ( |
Triterpenoids | [ | |
Apiaceae |
|
Whole plant | Water | Water | 58.6 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); not detected (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Phenolics and flavonoids | [ |
Apocynaceae |
|
Stem bark | Water | Hot water | 80.97% suppressive activity at 200 mg/kg ( |
Alkaloids, triterpenoids | [ |
|
Stem bark | Dichloromethane | Mashing; hot water | 33 (chloroquine sensitive, D10) | Lignan, nortrachelogenin | [ | |
|
Root bark | Methanol | Hot water | 14.5 (chloroquine sensitive, D6) | Saponins, sesquiterpenes | [ | |
|
Leaves | Methanol | Hot water | 4.6 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 5.3 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, esquiterpenes | [ | |
Aristolochiaceae |
|
Seeds | Methanol | Water | >50 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7); undetectable (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids, monoterpenoids, alkaloids | [ |
Asphodelaceae |
|
Leaves | Water | Cold water; mashing; hot water | Antiplasmodial activity in terms of EC50 values 0.289 to 1.056 |
Aloin, anthraquinones, aloe-emodin | [ |
Asteraceae |
|
Whole plant | Methanol | Hot water | 11.5 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 12.1 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Flavonoids | [ |
|
Leaves | Water | Hot water | 1.1 (chloroquine sensitive, D10); 0.9 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene lactones including artemisinin, flavonoids such as chrysoplenol-D, eupatorin, chyrsoplenetin | [ | |
|
Leaves | Methanol | Hot water | 9.1 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 3.9 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Acacetin, genkwanin, 7-methoxyacacetin | [ | |
|
Leaves | Ethanol | Hot water | Significant chemo suppressive effect of 92.23% (400 mg/kg) on |
Saponins, terpenoids, alkaloids, resins, tannins, flavonoids, sterols | [ | |
|
Leaves | Petroleum ether | Hot water | 4.6 (chloroquine resistant, K1) | Flavonoids | [ | |
|
Leaves | Dichloromethane | Hot water; mashing | 8.5 (chloroquine sensitive, D10) | Flavonoids including quercetin 3,3′-dimethyl ether 7-0- |
[ | |
|
Leaves | Chloroform | Hot water | 3.7 ( |
5-alkylcoumarins, | [ | |
Ethanol | 50 ( |
||||||
|
Leaves | Ethyl acetate | Hot water | 40.6% inhibition of |
Flavonoids | [ | |
|
Whole plant | Crude ethanol | Hot water | 49.09% growth inhibition at 100 μg/ml (chloroquine resistant, Dd2) | Lactones, eudesmanoline | [ | |
|
Leaves | Chloroform | Hot water | 68.83% chemo suppression activity ( |
Triterpenoid saponins | [ | |
|
Leaves | Hot water | <5 (both chloroquine sensitive, NF54 and resistant, FCR3) | E-phytol; 6e-geranylgeraniol-19-oic acid | [ | ||
|
Whole plant | Water | Hot water | 22.5 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 51.8 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Schkuhrin I and schkuhrin II | [ | |
Methanol | 1.3 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 6.8 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | ||||||
|
Leaves | Methanol | Water | 21.6 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7); 26.2 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Phytosterols, n-alkanes and N-hexacosanol, | [ | |
|
Leaves | Ethyl acetate | Water | 61.0% inhibition of |
[ | ||
|
Leaves | Methanol | Water | 1.2 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7); 1.5 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Tagitinin C, sesquiterpene lactones | [ | |
|
Leaves | Methanol | Hot water | 83.4% inhibition of parasitaemia, at 600 mg/kg ( |
Glycocides, glaucolides | [ | |
|
Leaves | Methanol/dichloromethane | Hot water; cold water | 2.7 (chloroquine resistant, K1) | Coumarin, sesquiterpene lactones including vernolepin, vernolin, vernolide, vernodalin and hydroxyvernodalin, steroid glucosides | [ | |
|
Whole plant | Water | Hot water | >50 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7); 37.2 (chloroquine resistant, K1) | Sesquiterpene lactone | [ | |
|
Leaves | Methanol | Mashing; hot water | 44.3 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 52.4 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Sesquiterpene lactones, polysaccarides | [ | |
Bignoniaceae |
|
Leaves | Ethyl acetate | Hot water | 71% inhibition of |
Phenylpropanoid glycosides, cycloartane triterpenoids | [ |
|
Stem bark | Ethyl acetate | Water | 28.9% inhibition of |
Quinone (lapachol) | [ | |
Caesalpiniaceae |
|
Leaves | Methanol | Hot water | 23.4 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); undetectable (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Alkaloids | [ |
|
Leaves | Ethanol | Hot water | >50 ( |
[ | ||
|
Leaves | Ethanol | Water | 59.29% growth inhibition at 100 mg/kg body weight dose |
Piperidine alkaloids | [ | |
Caesalpinioideae |
|
Root back | Methanol | Water | 32.0 (chloroquine sensitive 3D7) | [ | |
Canelliaceae |
|
Stem back | Methanol | Hot water | 6.4 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 6.9 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Sesquiterpenes e.g. muzigadiolide | [ |
Water | 12.9 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 15.6 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | ||||||
Caricaceae |
|
Leaves | Ethyl acetate | Hot water | 2.96 (chloroquine sensitive, D10); 3.98 (chloroquine resistant, DD2) | Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, glycosides | [ |
Methanol | 10.8 (chloroquine sensitive, D10) | ||||||
Celastraceae |
|
Roots | Hot water | 1.9 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 2.4 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Terpenoids, pentacyclic triterpenes e.g. pristimerin | [ | |
Chenopodiaceae |
|
Leaves | Crude hydroalcoholic extract | Hot water | Inhibited the |
Sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes | [ |
Combretaceae |
|
Stem back | Acetone | Water | 8.2 (chloroquine sensitive 3D7) | Phenolics, punicalagin | [ |
Cucurbitaceae |
|
Seeds | Crude ethanol | Hot water | 50% reduction of parasitaemia levels in |
Phenols, terpenoids, alkaloids, tannins | [ |
|
Shoot | Water | Hot water | 6.16 (chloroquine sensitive, NF54); 0.35 (chloroquine resistant, FCR3) | Saponins, alkaloid, cardiac glycosides | [ | |
Ebenaceae |
|
Root back | Hexane | Water | 38.2 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7); 38.9 (chloroquine resistant, Dd2) | Triterpenoids lupeol, betulin, 3β-(5-hydroxyferuloyl)lup-20(30)-ene | [ |
Euphorbiaceae |
|
Leaves | Water | Hot water | 4.8 (chloroquine resistant, K1) | Phenolics including ellagic acid | [ |
|
Stem bark | Methanol | Hot water | 19.4 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 14.2 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | [ | ||
|
Leaves | Methanol | Water | 7.8 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 11.3 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Diterpenes | [ | |
|
Leaves | Chloroform | Hot water | Chemotherapeutic effect of 66–82% in malaria mouse model | Triterpenoids including lupeol | [ | |
|
Leaves | Water/methanol | Hot water | 2 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Bergenin | [ | |
|
Leaves | Ethyl acetate | Hot water | 5.1 (chloroquine sensitive, NF54); 2.4 (chloroquine resistant, K1) | Alkaloids, saponnins, glycosides, tannins | [ | |
|
Water | Hot water | Ranged from 2.9 to 4.1 (both chloroquine sensitive, 3D7 and resistant, Dd2) | Coumarins including 1-O-galloyl-6-O-luteoyl-a-D-glucose | [ | ||
Fabaceae |
|
Leaves | Crude ethanol | Mashing | 29.0 ( |
Cajachalcone; | [ |
|
Seeds | Methanol | Hot water | >5 (chloroquine resistant, K1) | Flavonoids, terpenoids | [ | |
|
Leaves | Ethanol | Hot water | 26.4 (chloroquine sensitive, HB3); 28.9 (chloroquine resistant, FcM29) | Phenolics | [ | |
|
Stem bark | Ethyl acetate | Hot water | 83.6% inhibition of |
Chalcones (5-prenylbutein, homobutein), flavanones including 5-deoxyabyssinin II, abyssinin III and abyssinone IV | [ | |
|
Leaves | Ethanol | Hot water | 5.8 ( |
[ | ||
|
Leaves | Methanol | Hot water | >100 (chloroquine sensitive, K39) | Quinones | [ | |
|
Leaves | Ethanol | Mashing; hot water | 28.8 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7); 48.3 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Phenolic derivative, chrobisiamone a, anhydrobarakol | [ | |
|
Stem bark | Water | Hot water | 25.1% chemo suppressive activity at 10 mg/kg ( |
Saponins (leaves), tannins (fruits) | [ | |
Flacourtiaceae |
|
Leaves | Petroleum ether | Hot water | 3.9 ( |
Triterpenoids | [ |
Hypericaceae |
|
Stem bark | Water | Hot water | 9.64 (chloroquine resistant, K1) | Quinones including bazouanthrone, feruginin a, harunganin, harunganol a | [ |
Lamiaceae |
|
Whole plant | Ethanol | Hot water | 55 (chloroquine sensitive, FCA/GHA); 57 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Ajugarin-1, ergosterol-5,8-endoperoxide, 8-O-acetylharpagide, steroids | [ |
|
Root bark | Methanol | Hot water | 4.7 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 8.3 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | [ | ||
|
Leaves | Methanol | Mashing; hot water | <5 (both chloroquine sensitive, NF54 and resistant, FCR3) | Saponins, tannins | [ | |
|
Leaves | Ethyl acetate | Hot water | 66.2% inhibition of |
Quinones, saponins, abietane diterpenes (3-O-benzoylhosloppone) | [ | |
|
Leaves | Ethyl acetate | Water | 27.0% inhibition of |
[ | ||
|
Leaves | Ethanol | Hot water | 68.14 (chloroquine sensitive, CQ-s); 67.27 (chloroquine resistant, CQ-r) | [ | ||
|
Leaves/twigs | Dichloromethane | Hot water | 8.6 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Flavonoids | [ | |
|
Leaves | Water | Water | Significantly suppressed parasitaemia, 22.2%, 26.8% and 35.5% at dose of 200, 400 and 600 mg·kg, respectively ( |
[ | ||
|
Leaves/stem | Dichloromethane | Hot water | No activity | [ | ||
|
Hot water | Essential oil at a concentration 15867 ng/ml had no antimalarial activity | [ | ||||
|
Root | Hot water | 13.2 (chloroquine-sensitive, NF54) | [ | |||
Lauranceae |
|
Leaves | Ethanol | Hot water | 10.15 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7); 44.94 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Phenolics | [ |
Meliaceae |
|
Leaves | Hot water | 17.9 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 43.7 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Terpenoids, isoprenoids, gedunin | [ | |
|
Leaves | Methanol | Hot water | 55.1 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7); 19.1 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | [ | ||
Menispermaceae |
|
Root bark | Methanol | Hot water | 8.8 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 9.2 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids | [ |
Mimosaceae |
|
Stem bark | Methanol | Hot water | Dose of 100 mg/kg b/w produced parasitic ( |
Tannins, flavonoids, terpenes | [ |
|
Stem bark | Methanol | Hot water | 15.2 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 16.8 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Triterpenoids, lupeol, lupenone | [ | |
|
Leaves | Ethyl acetate | Hot water | 22.0% inhibition of |
[ | ||
|
Stem bark | Methanol | Water | 1.0 (chloroquine resistant, K1) | Flavonoids mainly 3′,4′,7-trihydroxyflavone | [ | |
Moraceae |
|
Stem bark | Ethyl acetate | Hot water | 36.4% inhibition of |
[ | |
|
Leaves | Hexane | Hot water | 6.7 ( |
[ | ||
|
Leaves | Ethanol | Hot water | 76.7% chemo suppressive activity at 250 mg/kg/day ( |
[ | ||
Moringaceae |
|
Leaves | Methanol | Mashing; hot water | 9.8 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); not detected (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Flavonols | [ |
Musaceae |
|
Leaves | Ethyl acetate | Hot water | 75 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7); 100 (chloroquine resistant, Dd2) | Flavonoids | [ |
Myristicaceae |
|
Leaves | 50% ethanol | Hot water | >1000 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7) | Talaumidin | [ |
Myrsinaceae |
|
Twig | Dichloromethane:Methanol (1 : 1) | Hot water | 5.9 (chloroquine sensitive, D10) | Lanciaquinones, 2,5, dihydroxy-3-(nonadec-14-enyl)-1,4-benzoquinone | [ |
Myrtaceae |
|
Stem back | Water | Hot water | 10–20 (chloroquine sensitive, D10) | Phenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, terpenoids | [ |
|
Twig | Dichloromethane:Methanol (1 : 1) | Hot water | 14.7 (chloroquine sensitive, D10) | [ | ||
|
Stem back | Hot water | 0.25 to 27.1 (chloroquine-resistant strains) | [ | |||
|
Leaves | Crude ethanol | Hot water | 49.09% chemo suppression at 400 mg/kg ( |
[ | ||
Poaceae |
|
Whole plant | Hot water | 99.89% suppression of parasitaemia at 1600 mg/kg | Flavonoids | [ | |
|
Husks | Ethyl acetate | Hot water | 9.3 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7); 3.7 (chloroquine resistant, INDO) | Alkaloids, flavonoids and triterpenoids | [ | |
Polygalaceae |
|
Leaves | Dichloromethane | Hot water | 6.9 (chloroquine sensitive, D10) | Saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids | [ |
Rosaceae |
|
Stem bark | Methanol | Hot water | 17.3 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); not detected (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Terpenoids | [ |
Rubiaceae |
|
Root | Ethanol | Water | 100 μg/ml extract had 65.54% growth inhibition (chloroquine resistant, Dd2) | Alkaloids | [ |
|
Root | Methanol | Hot water | 0.99 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 0.93 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Pyranonaphthoquinones, pentalongin (1) and psychorubrin (2), naphthalene derivative mollugin (3) | [ | |
Rutaceae |
|
Seeds (isolimonexic acid methyl ether) | Hot water | <4.76 (both chloroquine sensitive, D6 and resistant, W2) | Limonin, isolimonexic acid methyl ether, ichangin, deacetylnomilin, obacunone | [ | |
|
70% ethanol | Hot water | 53.27% suppression of parasitaemia at 700 mg/kg | Tannins, alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids | [ | ||
|
Bark | Ethyl acetate | Water | 54.7% inhibition of |
Quinonline alkaloids | [ | |
|
Root bark | Methanol | Water | 6.8 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 13.9 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Furoquinolines (nitidine, 5,6-dihydronitidine), coumarins | [ | |
|
Stem bark | Water | Hot water | 4.3 (chloroquine sensitive, NF54); 25.1 (chloroquine resistant, FCR3) | Chelerythine, nitidine, methyl canadine | [ | |
Salicaceae |
|
Leaves | Methanol | Hot water | >50 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7) | [ | |
Sapindaceae |
|
Leaves | Ethyl acetate | Hot water | 2.3% inhibition of |
[ | |
Simaroubaceae |
|
Roots | Hot water | 4.4 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 10.25 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Limonoids, steroids | [ | |
Solanaceae |
|
Fruit | Methanol | Hot water | 10.3 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7); 18.7 (chloroquine resistant, K1) | Steroidal alkaloids, flavonoids | [ |
Ulmaceae |
|
Stem bark | Ethyl acetate | Hot water | 37.5% inhibition of |
[ | |
Verbenaceae |
|
Leaves | Dichloromethane | Hot water | 8.7 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7); 5.7 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Sesquiterpenes, triterpenes, flavonoids | [ |
|
Arial parts | Petroleum ether | Hot water | 13.2 ( |
Steroids, terpenoids, alkaloids, saponins | [ | |
Ethanol | >50 ( |
||||||
Zingiberaceae |
|
Hot water; mashing | 5 mg/kg had a significantly high chemo suppressive activity of 56.8% ( |
Polyphenolic curcumin | [ |
Flavonoids in a vast number of plants used for malaria treatment in Uganda are common to plants in the family Asteraceae such as
Artemisinin resistance in
About 182 plant species from about 63 different plant families are used to treat malaria across several communities in Uganda (Table
(a) Composition of plant species in each family used to treat malaria. (b) Percentage use of plant parts for treatment of malaria.
The plant parts greatly used to treat malaria are leaves (54.4%) followed by roots (17.4%) and bark (16%); whole plants and other plant parts are used less commonly (Figure
Different herbal remedies are used in different communities in different parts of the country depending on the geographical distribution of the medicinal plant species, for example,
Among all communities in Uganda, some measures are taken to control malaria, including draining of stagnant water, clearing and burning bushes, sleeping under insecticide-treated mosquito nets, and house spraying with insecticides.
The mode of preparation and use of herbs among different communities vary depending on the nature of the herb and plant parts used for malaria treatment [
In some cases, the medicinal plant parts are dried then pulverized to powder and 2–5 tablespoons of the power added to water and boiled to make a decoction. Some medicinal plant parts such as bark of
Medicine for malaria treatment from a herb such as
Some studies have been performed on antiplasmodial/antimalarial activities of some of the herbal plants used in Uganda to treat malaria by using various strains of malarial parasites to confirm effectiveness as malaria treatment [
The antimalarial activity of herbal plants is due to the presence of a number of metabolically active compounds [
The levels of activity of the antimalarial plant extracts depend on the concentration of the active antimalarial secondary metabolites [
The synergistic effect of the interaction of the different active secondary metabolites is a main contributing factor to the high levels of antiplasmodial activity of some of the herbal plant extracts, for example, in
Top 17 herbal plants used locally in Uganda for malaria treatment with highest antimalarial/antiplasmodial activities (arranged alphabetically).
Plant family | Plant species | Plant part | Extracting solvent | Report on antiplasmodial, IC50 ( |
Active chemical constituents | Toxicity/safety information | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asteraceae |
|
Leaves | Methanol | 3.9 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Acacetin, genkwanin, 7-methoxyacacetin | Cytotoxicity was observed in Vero cells | [ |
|
Leaves | Water | 0.9 (chloroquine resistant, W2); 1.1 (chloroquine sensitive, D10) | Sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene lactones including artemisinin | Generally safe and effective; nausea may occur on drinking herbal extract; artemisinin, an active compound in the extract is safe for pregnant women at least during second and third trimesters | [ | |
|
Leaves | Ethanol | Significant chemo suppressive effect of 92.23% (400 mg/kg) on |
Saponins, terpenoids, alkaloids, resins, tannins, flavonoids, sterols | No signs of toxicity in mice even at a dose as high as 5000 mg/kg | [ | |
|
Leaves | Ethyl acetate | 2.4 (chloroquine resistant, K1) | Alkaloids, saponnins, glycosides, tannins | Moderate toxicity on thrombocyte line and a protective effect on cardiovascular system; no signs of toxicity in mice following oral administration of 5000 mg/kg body weight (bw) dose | [ | |
|
Leaves | Dichloromethane | 1.5 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7; 2.4 chloroquin resistant, W2) | E-phytol; 6e-geranylgeraniol-19-oic acid | Relatively high cytotoxicity against cells from the human foetal lung fibroblast cell line | [ | |
|
Whole plant | Methanol | 1.3 (chloroquine sensitive, D6) | Schkuhrin I and schkuhrin II | Methanol extract: low cytotoxicity against human cells; aqueous extracts: no observed toxicity observed in mice | [ | |
|
Leaves | Methanol | 1.2 (chloroquine sensitive, 3D7); 1.5 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Tagitinin C, sesquiterpene lactones | Aerial parts are cytotoxic against cells from the human foetal lung fibroblast cell line | [ | |
|
Leaves | Methanol/dichloromethane | 2.7 (chloroquine resistant, K1) | Coumarin, sesquiterpene lactones including vernolepin, vernolin, vernolide, vernodalin and hydroxyvernodalin, steroid glucosides | Petroleum ether extract shows strong cytotoxicity | [ | |
Caricaceae |
|
Leaves | Ethyl acetate | 2.96 (chloroquine sensitive, D10); 3.98 (chloroquine resistant, DD2) | Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, glycosides | No serious toxicity reported, carpaine, an active compound against |
[ |
Celastraceae |
|
Roots | 1.9 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 2.4 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Terpenoids, pentacyclic triterpenes, e.g., pristimerin | No toxicity observed in ethanol extract | [ | |
Cucurbitaceae |
|
Shoot | Water | 0.35 (chloroquine resistant, FCR3); 6.16 (chloroquine sensitive, NF54) | Saponins, alkaloid, phenolic glycosides including 5,7,4′-Trihydroxyflavanone and kaempferol | No pronounced toxicity against human hepatocellular (HepG2) and human urinary bladder carcinoma (ECV-304, derivative of T-24) cells | [ |
Euphorbiaceae |
|
Leaves | Water | 4.8 (chloroquine resistant, K1) | Phenolics including ellagic acid | No mortality in mice in acute toxicity test | [ |
|
Leaves | Water/methanol | 2 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Bergenin | Nontoxic, extracts exposed to murine macrophages did not slow or inhibit growth of cells | [ | |
|
Water | Ranged from 2.9 to 4.1 (both chloroquine sensitive, 3D7 and resistant, Dd2) | Coumarins including 1-O-galloyl-6-O-luteoyl-a-D-glucose | No toxicity was observed; thus, LD50 of the aqueous extract is >5000 mg/kg. b.w. | [ | ||
Lamiaceae |
|
Leaves | Methanol | 0.02 (chloroquine sensitive, CQS); 1.56 (chloroquine resistant, CQR) | Iridoid glycosides such as serratoside A, serratoside B and monomelittoside, diterpenoids including uncinatone, clerodin, and sugiol | Not explored | [ |
Mimosaceae |
|
Stem bark | Methanol | 1.0 (chloroquine resistant, K1) | Flavonoids, mainly 3′,4′,7-trihydroxyflavone | The aqueous extract is relatively safe on subacute exposure | [ |
Rubiaceae |
|
Root | Methanol | 0.99 (chloroquine sensitive, D6); 0.93 (chloroquine resistant, W2) | Pyranonaphthoquinones, pentalongin (1) and psychorubrin (2), naphthalene derivative mollugin (3) | Low cytotoxicity | [ |
Rutaceae |
|
Seeds (isolimonexic acid methyl ether) | <4.76 (both chloroquine sensitive, D6 and resistant, W2) | Limonin, isolimonexic acid methyl ether, ichangin, deacetylnomilin, obacunone | Dermal 50% lethal dose (LD50) of undiluted leaf oil is >2 g/kg in rabbits; seed extract causes respiratory distress and strong spleen contraction | [ |
Although herbs are generally considered safer when used for treatment compared to conventional drugs, some of the herbs used traditionally to treat malaria in Uganda may be efficacious, but there is a need to have them used with caution as some may be toxic (Table
The health care system of Uganda consists of the public, private-profit oriented, and private-nonprofit oriented sectors. There is quite a large sector of informal health care including traditional medicine practitioners, drug shops, medicine vendors, and complementary and alternative practitioners. The contribution of traditional health practitioners to Uganda’s health care system was not valued until lately [
A policy on Traditional and Complementary Medicine was created to regulate traditional medicine practice focusing on research and development while emphasizing the propagation, protection, and sustainable use of medicinal plant resources [
The National Drug Authority (NDA) is a body that ensures quality control of all medical products including herbal medicines in Uganda under the government statute and policy of 1993 [
Herbal medicines though vastly used in Uganda are not sufficiently regulated. A system to license and track traditional health practitioners or their products is still lacking in the country, and the efforts to have the TCM integrated in the mainstream health care system is still a long way from being realized.
Uganda is rich in indigenous plant resources that are used by its people to treat malaria. Communities in different regions of the country use different herbs within their geographical range, though a few common herbs are used by different communities across the country. Many herbs used for malaria treatment among several communities have not been investigated for their efficacy, and yet they could be potential sources for antimalarial remedies including drugs. Few studies have been conducted to document herbs for malaria treatment in the country, especially in the northern region. Some of the plants investigated for antimalarial/antiplasmodial activities have been found to lack efficacy, toxicity, and safety study aspects. Some plants used in the local communities had very strong antimalarial activities and could be investigated further for the identification and validation of the potential therapeutic antimalarial compounds. This review is critical in that it clearly highlights herbal plants documented in Uganda for malaria treatment but have never been investigated for their antimalarial potential, thus providing guidance for further research on potential natural plant resources that could be sources of novel compounds with therapeutic properties for the treatment of malaria.
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Denis Okello carried out the data search and was the main contributor in writing the manuscript. Youngmin Kang technically designed and helped in writing the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.
This study was supported under the framework of International Cooperation Program (Korea-South Africa Cooperative Research Project for Excavation of Candidate Resources of Complementary and Alternative Medicine) managed by National Research Foundation of Korea (grant nos. 2017093655 and KIOM:D17470). Additionally, this study was equally supported by grants from Development of Foundational Techniques for the Domestic Production of Herbal Medicines (K18405) and Applicational Development of Standardized Herbal Resources (KSN1911420), from the Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine (KIOM), through the Ministry of Science and ICT, Republic of Korea.