Understanding the factors that contribute to student success is crucial for educators. This study estimated the indicators of success in the context of student achievement in university EFL courses in Taiwan. Data was collected from two classes of sophomore students and various student assessment aspects served as dependent variables: overall final grade, final exam score, oral test performance, and scores received on the listening, reading, and writing sections of the final exam. Explanatory variables included: years of English study, gender, part-time work, total hours studying English, participation in English-taught program, English language aptitude, first language ability, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, language anxiety, attendance, reading English for pleasure, and socioeconomic status. Pearson product-moment correlations were calculated and stepwise multiple regression analyses identified selections of variables that explained the dependent variables. Multiple regressions using the selected variables suggested that hours spent studying English, participation in the English taught program, first language ability, attendance and reading for pleasure were the most significant indicators of achievement. All models provided statistically significant moderate to strong explanatory power. Finally, this paper offers pedagogical considerations based on the results, as well as suggestions for future research.
General English courses are a common feature of the university curriculum landscape in Taiwan. Most universities require students to enroll in EFL classes for at least the first two years. Needless to say, it is important for educators to understand the determinants of success associated with these classes.
This study focused on a relatively homogeneous group of Mandarin speakers enrolled in general English conversation classes at a Taiwanese university. To obtain more detailed data regarding this sample group, the dependent variables were established by decomposing student course performance into various components: overall final grade, final exam score, oral test, listening, reading, and writing sections of the final exam scores. Furthermore, this study was distinct in that it incorporated an eclectic range of variables likely to affect language achievement, thereby controlling for individual differences identified in the literature to be associated with both second language acquisition and other relevant disciplines: years spent studying English, gender, hours spent on part-time work, hours spent studying English per week, participation in English-taught courses, college entrance exam English score, first language ability, anxiety, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, attendance, reading English for pleasure, and socioeconomic status. This analysis employed class-level data from two classes of EFL students to calculate Pearson product-moment correlations, perform stepwise multiple regression procedures and run multiple regressions in order to reveal and evaluate the variables most closely correlated with success in the university EFL conversation courses under investigation.
Previous literature on the factors that influence second language acquisition success has identified a number of significant factors. Influential studies have conceptualized the impact of different aspects of motivation, anxiety, language aptitude, and self-confidence on achievement in language classes [
More recent research conducted in Taiwan has identified motivation and attitudes as significant variables explaining English proficiency [
Further, the benefits of comprehensible input and the effects of reading for pleasure on improving student English ability [
While the influence of a student’s first language on second language acquisition is complex and somewhat controversial, several studies have postulated that first language ability has positive effects on second-language comprehension, including apparent language processing benefits associated with reading in a second language [
Numerous scholars have also studied the predictors of success in mainstream university courses; they have identified a variety of predictors impacting student performance, including gender [
Condelli and Wrigley [
This study attempted to use an electric selection of variables identified in EFL and general course literature to address the following issues: Which variables are most closely correlated with the chosen aspects of student EFL achievement? Are there different indicators of success for different aspects of student achievement? Which covariates does the stepwise technique select to specify linear regression models of EFL achievement? How well do these models perform in explaining the variation in student achievement?
The participants consisted of 74 students (
This study employed a number of variables. First, explanations of the response variables are provided, followed by descriptions of the explanatory variables.
The final course grade for each student that participated in the study. Components of the final grade were attendance (10%), participation (10%), homework (10%), midterm (30%) and final (30%) exams, and an oral test (10%).
Student scores on the final exam taken on the last day of class. The final exam comprised of listening (30%), reading (30%) and writing (40%) sections.
Oral score received based on a 10-minute oral test.
Student scores on the listening section of the final exam.
Student scores on the reading section of the final exam, which required students to read two articles, complete a cloze activity and answer multiple-choice questions.
Student scores on the writing section of the final exam, which called for two short compositions based on topics covered in the textbook.
The number of years the student had studied English formally, including pre-school, elementary school, junior and senior high school, and university.
The students were coded as female = 0 or male = 1.
Hours per week spent on part-time employment. Twenty-five students had part-time jobs, accounting for 33.78 percent of all students. The mean and standard deviation for all students were 3.30 and 6.18, respectively, for the 25 students who were engaged in part-time employment, the mean and standard deviation were 9.78 and 7.10, respectively.
This variable indicates the total number of hours spent studying English outside of this class. This could include time spent participating in and studying for other English classes both at the university or at external cram schools, doing homework not associated with this class, and self study, among other sources.
Total number of class hours spent in the university’s English-taught program, where students study other subjects in the business program and the medium of instruction is English. For all students in the study, the mean and standard deviation were 1.84 and 3.06, respectively. However, for the 27 students enrolled in the English-taught program, the mean and standard deviation were 5.04 and 3.08, respectively.
Result attained on the English section of the Joint College Entrance Exam (JCEE). In Taiwan, the major route to enter university is by taking the Joint College Entrance Exam administered by the College Entrance Exam Center, held annually in January and July. The scores used in this study were those received in the January session of the JCEE. The minimum possible score was 1 and the maximum 15.
Mark achieved for the Chinese portion of the JCEE. The scores used in this study were those received in the January session of the JCEE. The minimum possible score was 1 and the maximum 15. All of the students in this study spoke Mandarin as their first language; therefore, first-language interference was assumed to be constant across all participants.
Five language learning anxiety items were measured using a 5-point Likert scale adapted from Cheng et al. [
Intrinsic motivation refers to the enjoyment, pleasure, or usefulness students associate with learning a language. Five items adapted from Deci and Ryan [
Extrinsic motivation is concerned with external factors that motivate a student to learn, such as the earning of some reward or the avoidance of some punishment. This construct was measured using five items adapted from Deci and Ryan [
Attendance was based on class attendance records for the 16 classes held that semester, which accounted for 10 percent of students’ final grades. For this study, attendance required both presence in the classroom and conscious participation in class activities. The minimum number of classes attended was 12 and the maximum number of classes attended was 16.
Total hours students spent per week reading English materials (books, magazines, newspapers, etc.) for personal pleasure. Student scores were recorded using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (no reading for pleasure) to 5 (read for pleasure on a daily basis).
Socioeconomic status is a measure of a person’s income, education and wealth. This study used student perceptions of their family’s wealth and their father’s level of education as the measurements for this variable. The variables were measured categorically and coded on a scale of 1 to 5. Regarding family wealth, 1 represented poor and 5 represented rich; for level of education, 1 equaled no high school education, 2 completed high school, 3 a bachelor’s degree, 4 a master’s degree, and 5 a doctorate. The maximum possible score for these variables was 10 and the minimum 2.
This study used class-level data collected from class records and an in-class student survey to explore the association and influence of a variety of explanatory variables on different measures of student assessment. The survey was conducted on the final day of class (week 17) of an 18-week semester and took approximately 10 minutes to complete. Of the 79 questionnaires collected, there were 74 valid, complete responses.
Initially, this study calculated Pearson-product moment correlation coefficients and corresponding
The dependent variable means and standard deviations are summarized in Table
Dependent variable means and standard deviations.
Variable | Total mean | S.D. | Female mean | S.D. | Male mean | S.D. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Final grade | 74.32 | (8.89) | 76.21 | (7.78) | 68.41 | (9.74) |
Final exam | 68.26 | (11.72) | 69.84 | (11.18) | 63.33 | (12.32) |
Oral | 76.77 | (6.29) | 77.80 | (5.63) | 73.56 | (7.27) |
Listening | 57.07 | (18.35) | 58.52 | (17.56) | 52.58 | (20.51) |
Reading | 73.85 | (6.89) | 74.13 | (7.19) | 73.0 | (5.99) |
Writing | 73.05 | (11.72) | 74.7 | (10.84) | 67.93 | (12.24) |
Explanatory variable means and standard deviations.
Variable | Total mean | S.D. | Female mean | S.D. | Male mean | S.D. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yearseng | 10.03 | (2.16) | 10.10 | (2.22) | 9.83 | (2.01) |
Engtotal | 5.16 | (4.19) | 5.03 | (4.37) | 5.56 | (3.67) |
Engtaught | 1.84 | (3.06) | 1.84 | (3.07) | 1.83 | (3.11) |
Jobhours | 3.30 | (6.18) | 3.69 | (6.70) | 2.11 | (4.16) |
Jceeeng | 12.81 | (1.45) | 12.96 | (1.55) | 12.33 | (0.97) |
Jceechin | 12.31 | (1.20) | 12.43 | (1.25) | 11.94 | (1.00) |
Anxiety | 15.80 | (3.09) | 15.91 | (3.26) | 15.44 | (2.55) |
Intrinsic | 18.20 | (4.26) | 18.52 | (4.09) | 17.17 | (4.74) |
Extrinsic | 20.90 | (2.08) | 21.00 | (2.09) | 20.44 | (2.06) |
Attend | 14.74 | (1.22) | 14.82 | (1.24) | 14.50 | (1.15) |
Readpleas | 3.08 | (1.32) | 3.03 | (1.22) | 2.39 | (1.42) |
Socecon | 6.15 | (0.92) | 6.07 | (0.95) | 6.39 | (0.78) |
One of the central purposes of this investigation was to explore the relationships between the dependent variables measuring different aspects of student achievement and a number of explanatory variables identified in the literature. From Table
Correlations between dependent and independent variables.
Variable | Final grade | Final exam | Oral | Listening | Reading | Writing |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yearseng | −0.007 | 0.114 | 0.026 | 0.083 | −0.024 | 0.11 |
Gender | −0.379*** | −0.24* | −0.291* | −0.14 | −0.07 | −0.254* |
Jobhours | 0.106 | 0.077 | 0.003 | 0.115 | 0.165 | 0.034 |
Engtotal | 0.285* | 0.331** | 0.19 | 0.297** | 0.215 | 0.279* |
Engtaught | 0.330** | 0.291* | 0.273* | 0.261* | 0.166 | 0.246* |
Jceeeng | 0.376*** | 0.305** | 0.344** | 0.364** | 0.469*** | 0.197 |
Jceechin | 0.539*** | 0.548*** | 0.496*** | 0.501*** | 0.561*** | 0.457*** |
Intrinsic | 0.302** | 0.15 | 0.349** | 0.07 | 0.34** | 0.17 |
Extrinsic | 0.405*** | 0.314** | 0.338** | 0.329** | 0.376*** | 0.232* |
Anxiety | 0.232* | 0.272* | 0.085 | 0.25* | 0.41*** | 0.225 |
Attend | 0.349** | 0.419*** | 0.257* | 0.35** | 0.268* | 0.372** |
Readpleas | 0.472*** | 0.371** | 0.493*** | 0.21 | 0.343** | 0.397*** |
Socecon | 0.19 | 0.14 | 0.222 | 0.216 | 0.259* | 0.064 |
This study applied stepwise regression analysis to each dependent variable with the set of independent variables and utilized the variables selected to conduct multiple regression analyses. The coefficients and statistical significance for each variable, as well as the explanatory power and significance for the model, are reported in Tables
Regressions for dependent variables: finalgrade, finalexam, and oral.
Final grade | Final exam | Oral | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Coefficient | Variable | Coefficient | Variable | Coefficient |
Intercept | 8.264 (0.77) | Intercept | −22.783 (−1.602) | Intercept | 37.353*** (5.508) |
Gender | −4.966** (−2.864) | Gender | −3.262 (−1.37) | Gender | −2.24 (−1.679) |
Engtaught | 0.831*** (3.645) | Engtotal | 0.76** (3.257) | Jobhours | −0.138 (−1.527) |
Jceechin | 2.914*** (4.751) | Jceeeng | −2.401* (−2.356) | Engtotal | −0.313 (−1.552) |
Attend | 1.109 (1.85) | Jceechin | 5.873*** (4.717) | Engtaught | 0.798** (2.976) |
Readpleas | 1.639** (2.839) | Attend | 2.824** (3.431) | Jceechin | 2.256*** (4.738) |
Socecon | 1.375 (1.72) | Readpleas | 1.541 (1.95) | Readpleas | 1.512** (3.365) |
Socecon | 1.322* (2.118) | ||||
| |||||
|
0.594 | 0.547 | 0.524 | ||
Adj |
0.557 | 0.506 | 0.474 | ||
|
16.3*** | 13.45*** | 10.39*** | ||
df | 6, 67 | 6, 67 | 7, 66 |
Values in parentheses are
Regressions for dependent variables: listening, reading, and writing.
Listening | Reading | Writing | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Coefficient | Variable | Coefficient | Variable | Coefficient |
Intercept | −116.4*** (−4.105) | Intercept | 19.111* (2.499) | Intercept | −0.651 (−0.043) |
Yearseng | 1.120 (1.4) | Jceechin | 2.572*** (4.76) | Gender | −3.822 (−1.521) |
Engtotal | 0.996* (2.365) | Anxiety | 0.5741** (2.790) | Engtotal | 0.646* (2.623) |
Jceechin | 6.611*** (4.176) | Readpleas | 0.757 (1.573) | Jceeeng | −3.011** (−2.8) |
Extrinsic | 1.6 (1.721) | Socecon | 1.898** (2.843) | Jceechin | 5.424*** (4.129) |
Intrinsic | −0.815 (−1.828) | Attend | 2.526** (2.909) | ||
Attend | 2.554 (1.728) | Readpleas | 1.899* (2.277) | ||
Socecon | 3.176 (1.541) | ||||
| |||||
|
0.436 | 0.473 | 0.474 | ||
Adj |
0.376 | 0.442 | 0.427 | ||
|
7.285*** | 15.48*** | 10.06*** | ||
df | 7, 66 | 4, 69 | 6, 67 |
Values in parentheses are
The results of this study show that there was a relatively large difference in terms of achievement between females and males. This difference was significant for the correlations with
The total number of hours of English study per week was significantly correlated with scores on the final exam, and the listening, and writing sections. Moreover, those students enrolled in the English-taught program received higher final grades and scores on the oral test. For the multiple regression analyses, either variable
First language aptitude, as measured by the JCEE Chinese exam, was closely related to achievement in all of areas of English assessment, for both the correlations and multiple regressions, lending support to the hypotheses of previously mentioned authors [
Attendance was significantly positively correlated with final exam sores, and the writing section of the final exam. Such a result implies that students benefit from attending class, as concluded by other studies [
The significant correlations between reading for pleasure and final grades, oral test scores and the written section of the final exam correspond with those found in previously mentioned studies [
The results of this research identify a number of variables associated with success in the university EFL course under consideration. These results can be divided into two distinct sections. The Pearson-product moment correlations point to a variety of variables that can indicate success: female gender, total hours of English study per week, enrollment in the English-taught program, English aptitude, first language ability, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, class attendance, and reading for pleasure. Of these variables, first language ability was the most closely correlated with all of the components of attainment. Nevertheless, as a coefficient of determination (correlation squared), its predictive power is relatively modest. Stepwise regression selects combinations of variables that “best” explain the variation in the response variable. Although the indicators of success vary depending on the dependent variable under consideration, the results of this study generally point to total hours spent studying English per week (either in other English classes or English-taught courses), first language ability, attendance in class, and reading for pleasure as indicating those students most likely to achieve proficiency in the general university English classes considered in this research.
This study gives rise to a number of pedagogical implications. First, it is important for educators to consider gender differences and make efforts to support male student achievement. Second, students should be encouraged to engage in supplementary English learning. This could range from additional formal English courses and informal elective class environments to self-access learning and meaningful homework assignments. Third, perhaps the common policy of placing students into freshman English classes based on their JCEE English scores ought to be reviewed in light of the importance of first language ability as an indicator of achievement. It may be pertinent to include JCEE Mandarin scores in this equation. Fourth, providing clear, stringent attendance policies may be utilized to promote attendance in English classes. Fifth, encouraging students to read English materials of interest appears to be beneficial in advancing student achievement.
It should also be noted that even though the motivation and anxiety constructs did not provide notable explanatory power with reference to the dependent variables used in this study subsequent to the inclusion of other variables, they were significantly correlated with a majority of the dependent variables and should not be overlooked as important factors in successful English language learning. Further research is required to shed light on the specific motivational constructs that affect students enrolled in EFL courses in Taiwanese universities.
The implications of this research are constrained by a number of limitations. First, the self-reported nature of the questionnaire employed and the fact that it was conducted in English are limiting factors. However, the high-intermediate/low-advanced level of the students and availability of the course instructor to help with any questions mitigate these concerns to a large extent. Second, the sample coming from a relatively small group of students (especially male participants) who were all business majors means the generalizability of the results presented here needs to be treated with caution. In response to these limitations, the homogeneity of the sample of all business students should mitigate confounding factors to a certain extent, and exploration of the residuals preformed after the regressions displayed no concerns over the assumption of normality for the linear models used in this analysis. Finally, due to the scale of the project, some pertinent variables, such as learning strategies, metacognitive strategies, and general intelligence, were not included in the study. Future research is warranted to systematically address these issues.
Continuing research into the influences of success in university EFL courses will result in a better understanding of the factors that affect student performance, which in turn will assist educators as they develop curricula and implement policies that lead to greater student accomplishment. It is hoped that this paper may offer a first step in the search for the most meaningful indicators of success and motivate other researchers to continue studies in this direction.
An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Foreign Language Symposium, Foreign Language Center, Soochow University, March 2011.