International Journal of Pediatrics
Volume 2018 (2018), Article ID 3901505, 9 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/3901505

Research Article

Knowledge Level and Determinants of Neonatal Jaundice: A Cross-Sectional Study in the Effutu Municipality of Ghana

Prince Adoba,¹ Richard K. D. Ephraim,² Kate Adomakowaah Kontor,³ Joseph-Josiah Bentsil,² Patrick Adu,² Maxwell Anderson,⁴ Samuel Asamoah Sakyi,¹ and Paul Nsiah⁵

¹Department of Molecular Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
²Department of Medical Laboratory Science, School of Allied Health Sciences, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
³Medical OPD, Cape Coast Teaching Hospital, Cape Coast, Ghana
⁴Laboratory Department, Trauma and Specialist Hospital, Winneba, Ghana
⁵Department of Chemical Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana

Correspondence should be addressed to Prince Adoba; adobaprince@yahoo.com

Received 13 December 2017; Accepted 14 February 2018; Published 1 March 2018

Academic Editor: F. J. Kaskel

Copyright © 2018 Prince Adoba et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract.

Background. Neonatal jaundice (NNJ) is a major cause of hospital admission during the neonatal period and is associated with significant mortality. This case-control study with cross-sectional design sought to identify the possible factors associated with neonatal jaundice and assess maternal knowledge level of this condition. Methods. One hundred and fifty (150) neonates comprising 100 with clinically evident jaundice and 50 without jaundice were conveniently recruited from the Trauma and Specialist Hospital in the Effutu Municipality. Blood samples were collected for the determination of serum bilirubin, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), status and blood group (ABO and Rhesus). Well-structured questionnaire was used to collect maternal and neonate sociodemographic and clinical history. Results. Majority (54%) of neonates developed jaundice within 1–3 days after birth with 10% having it at birth. Duration of labour and neonatal birth weight were associated with neonatal jaundice (). G6PD abnormality was found in 11 (12%) of the neonates with jaundice and ABO incompatibility was present in 18%. Neonates delivered by mothers with formal occupation and those who had prolonged duration of labour were significantly more likely to have neonatal jaundice (OR = 4.174, ; OR = 2.389, , resp.). Neonates with low birth weight were also more likely to develop neonatal jaundice (OR = 2.347, ). Only 17.3% of mothers had heard of neonatal jaundice. School was the major source of information on neonatal jaundice (34.6%). Majority of participants (mothers) did not know that NNJ can cause damage to other organs in the body (90%). Conclusion. Low neonatal birth weight and prolonged duration of labour are associated with neonatal jaundice. Mothers had inadequate knowledge of neonatal jaundice and its causes.

1. Background

Neonatal jaundice (NNJ) is a common condition worldwide occurring in up to 60% of term and 80% of preterm newborns in the first week of life [1, 2]. Newborns show clinical signs which tend to start on the head and face and then spread down the trunk and limbs as a result of high serum levels of bilirubin. Jaundice in newborns is a result of increased release of haemoglobin from breakdown of red cells due to high haemoglobin at birth, as well as due to reduced lifespan of newborn red blood cells (70–80 days) compared to that of adults (90–120 days), and reduced hepatic metabolism of bilirubin due to immature hepatocytes. Most of this newborn hyperbilirubinemia is a natural transition which resolves by the first week of life with maturing of the liver. However, hyperbilirubinemia is also the main reason for hospital admissions and readmission during the neonatal period [3–5]. Hyperbilirubinemia often results in kernicterus with its attendant medical, economic, and social burden on the patients, families, and societies [6, 7].

Several maternal and neonatal risk factors such as preeclampsia, G6PD deficiency, ABO incompatibility, prematurity, birth weight, intrauterine growth retardation, metabolic abnormalities, neonate’s gender, birth weight, and nutrition have been identified as risk factors for neonatal jaundice [8, 9].

From the Child Health Outpatient Department of the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital, Ghana, no day passes without a baby coming in with neonatal jaundice [10]. In a retrospective study conducted by Onyearugha et al. [11] in Nigeria, 35% of neonates managed at a neonatal intensive care unit during a 24-month period were result of jaundice. However, there is scarcity of data on the knowledge and risk factors of neonatal jaundice in Ghana. This study therefore sought to identify the possible factors associated with neonatal jaundice and assess maternal knowledge level of this condition at Winneba in the Effutu Municipality of Ghana.

2. Methods

2.1. Study Design/Study Site

This hospital-based case-control study with cross-sectional design was conducted from November 2016 to April 2017 at Winneba in the Effutu Municipality of Ghana. The area is known for cohabitation of multiple ethnic groups. The socioeconomic classes range from peasant fisherman and street hawkers to top class civil servants and business executives. The Trauma and Specialist Hospital (TSH) was used for the study. The hospital serves as the central regional hospital providing trauma, orthopedic, and general healthcare to people in and around the region.

2.2. Study Population

A total of 150 neonates, comprising 100 with NNJ and 50 without NNJ, were conveniently recruited into the study. All neonates, either outborn or inborn, who presented to the pediatric ward of the hospital were included in the study. Babies who were above 28 days and babies whose parents did not consent to be enrolled were excluded.

2.3. Ethical Consideration

Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Cape Coast Institutional Review Board (UCCIRB) and the authorities of the hospital before starting the study. Informed written consent was also sought from the mothers and approval obtained before enrollment into the study.

2.4. Collection of Sociodemographic and Clinical Data

Sociodemographic data such as age, marital status, educational level, occupation, and residence and clinical data of neonates and mothers such as gravidity, mode of delivery, duration of labour, ANC visit, bleeding prior to labour, and parity were collected through interview and also from folders using well-structured questionnaire.

2.5. Blood Sample Collection

About 4 ml of venous blood samples were drawn from each participant and 2 ml dispensed into a dipotassium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (K2-EDTA) tube. The remainder was dispensed into a serum separator tube, allowed to clot, and centrifuged at 1500 rpm for 5–10 mins and the serum used for biochemical analysis.

2.6. Biochemical Tests

Serum total and direct bilirubin concentrations were estimated using Pentra C200 chemistry analyzer (34184 Montpellier Cedex 4, France). Indirect serum bilirubin level was calculated by subtracting direct bilirubin from total bilirubin.

2.7. Hematological Tests

Neonates’ blood group (ABO and Rhesus) and G6PD status were determined using standard protocols [12].

2.8. Statistical Analysis

Data were stored in Microsoft Excel and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16.0 software. Descriptive analysis was performed and the results were expressed as numbers and percentages. Categorical variables were compared using chi-square and quantitative variables by independent -test. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine the risk factors of neonatal jaundice. was considered statistically significant.

3. Results

Table 1 shows sociodemographic characteristics of study participants. The mean age of mothers was years and there was no difference in the ages of those with and those without NNJ. Most of the neonates with NNJ were males (52.7). Most (44%) of the mothers had SHS education with 42% having formal occupation.

Table 1: Sociodemographic characteristics of participants.

Parameter
Total
NNJ
No NNJ
value

Mother’s age (years)

0.700

Mother’s age group (years)

0.092

≤20
14 (9.3)
6 (6.0)
8 (16.0)

21–30
84 (56.0)
61 (61.0)
23 (46.0)

31–40
49 (32.7)
32 (32.0)
17 (34.0)

>40
3 (2.0)
1 (1.0)
2 (4.0)

Sex of neonate

0.817

Male
79 (52.7)
52 (52.0)
27 (54.0)

Female
71 (47.3)
48 (48.0)
23 (46.0)

Mother’s occupation

<0.001

None
39 (26.0)
23 (23.0)
16 (32.0)

Informal
48 (32.0)
23 (23.0)
25 (50.0)

Formal
63 (42.0)
54 (54.0)
9 (18.0)

Residence

0.318

Town
119 (79.3)
77 (77.0)
42 (84.0)

Village
31 (20.7)
23 (23.0)
8 (16.0)

Marital status

0.211

Single
55 (36.7)
34 (34.0)
21 (42.0)

Married
94 (62.7)
66 (66.0)
28 (56.0)

Divorced
1 (0.7)
0 (0.0)
1 (2.0)

Educational level (mother)

0.176

None
3 (2.0)
2 (2.0)
1 (2.0)

Primary
2 (1.3)
0 (0.0)
2 (4.0)

JHS
46 (30.7)
31 (31.0)
15 (30.0)

SHS
66 (44.0)
48 (48.0)
18 (36.0)

Tertiary
33 (22.0)
19 (19.0)
14 (28.0)

Educational level (father)

0.658

None
1 (0.7)
1 (1.0)
0 (0.0)

Primary
0 (0.0)
0 (0.0)
0 (0.0)

JHS
15 (10.0)
10 (10.0)
5 (10.0)

SHS
74 (49.3)
52 (52.0)
22 (44.0)

Tertiary
60 (40.0)
37 (37.0)
23 (46.0)

NNJ: neonatal jaundice.

The clinical, hematological, and obstetric history of study participants stratified by jaundice status is presented on Table 2. Most of mothers of both NNJ and no NNJ were nulliparous (55% v 56%) and primigravida (45% v 50%). A significant difference was found in proportion of neonates with jaundice and those without jaundice with respect to duration of labour (). 15% of mothers with jaundiced neonates experienced vaginal bleeding prior to labour, with 20% being sickling positive. Majority 43% of mothers having neonates with jaundice had prolonged duration of labour compared to the controls (43% v 24%, ). Most of neonates with jaundice also had low birth weight compared to those without jaundice (34% v 18%, ).

Table 2: Clinical, haematological, and obstetric history of study participants stratified by jaundice status.

Parameter
Total
NNJ
No NNJ
value

Gravidity

0.816

Primigravida
70 (46.7)
45 (45.0)
25 (50.0)

Secundigravida
43 (28.7)
29 (29.0)
14 (28.0)

Multigravida
37 (24.7)
26 (26.0)
11 (22.0)

Parity

0.737

Nulliparous
83 (55.3)
55 (55.0)
28 (56.0)

Primiparous
29 (19.3)
18 (18.0)
11 (22.0)

Multipara
38 (25.3)
27 (27.0)
11 (22.0)

Vaginal bleeding

0.637

No
126 (84.0)
83 (83.0)
43 (43.0)

Yes
24 (16.0)
17 (17.0)
7 (14.0)

Mode of delivery

0.110

NVD
94 (62.7)
57 (57.0)
37 (74.0)

NVDA
30 (20.0)
24 (24.0)
6 (12.0)

CS
26 (17.3)
19 (19.0)
7 (14.0)

Duration of labour

0.023

Normal
95 (63.3)
57 (57.0)
38 (76.0)

Prolonged
55 (36.7)
43 (43.0)
12 (24.0)

ANC

No
5 (3.3)
4 (4.0)
1 (2.0)

Yes
145 (96.7)
96 (96.0)
49 (98.0)

Place of ANC

0.318

Clinic
24 (16.1)
17 (17.0)
7 (14.3)

Hospital
121 (81.2)
79 (79.0)
42 (85.7)

Suckling

0.305

No
13 (8.7)
7 (7.0)
6 (12.0)

Yes
137 (91.3)
93 (93.0)
44 (88.0)

Traditional medicine

0.134

No
129 (86.0)
89 (89.0)
40 (80.0)

Yes
21 (14.0)
11 (11.0)
10 (20.0)

Mother’s sickling status

0.553

Negative
122 (81.3)
80 (80.0)
42 (84.0)

Positive
28 (18.7)
20 (20.0)
8 (16.0)

Mother’s G6PD status

0.115

Normal
126 (84.0)
80 (80.0)
46 (92.0)

PD
12 (8.0)
11 (11.0)
1 (2.0)

FD
12 (8.0)
9 (9.0)
3 (6.0)

Birth weight

0.041

Low
43 (28.7)
34 (34.0)
9 (18.0)

Normal
107 (71.3)
66 (66.0)
41 (82.0)

Birth weight

0.210

Gestation

0.226

NVD: normal vaginal delivery; NVDA: normal vaginal delivery with aid; CS: caesarian section; ANC: antenatal care; PD: partial enzyme defect; FD: full enzyme defect.

Majority (54%) of neonates developed jaundice within 1–3 days after birth with 10% having it at birth (Table 3). Mean DB was significantly higher among males than females ( versus , ). G6PD abnormality was found in 11 (12%) of the neonates with jaundice and ABO blood group incompatibility was present in 18%. No significant difference was found between birth weight, TB, and IDB of male and female neonates with jaundice () (Table 3).

Table 3: Demographic and clinical characteristics of study participants in relation to sex of neonate.

Parameter
Total
Males
Females
value

Mother’s age (years)

0.271

Mode of delivery

0.749

NVD
57 (57.0)
28 (53.8)
29 (60.4)

NVDA
24 (24.0)
14 (26.9)
10 (20.8)

CS
19 (19.0)
10 (19.2)
9 (18.8)

Duration of labour

0.507

Normal
57 (57.0)
28 (53.8)
29 (60.4)

Prolonged
43 (43.0)
24 (46.2)
19 (39.6)

Mother’s sickling status

0.484

Negative
80 (80.0)
43 (82.7)
37 (77.1)

Positive
20 (20.0)
9 (17.3)
11 (22.9)

Mother’s G6PD status

0.456

Normal
80 (80.0)
44 (84.6)
36 (75.0)

PD
11 (11.0)
4 (7.7)
7 (14.6)

FD
9 (9.0)
4 (7.7)
5 (10.4)

Begin of condition

0.048

At birth
10 (10.0)
7 (13.5)
3 (6.2)

1–3 days
54 (54.0)
22 (42.3)
32 (66.7)

≥4 days
36 (36.0)
23 (44.2)
13 (27.1)

Neonate’s G6PD status

0.511

Normal
88 (88.0)
47 (90.4)
41 (85.4)

PD
1 (1.0)
0 (0.0)
1 (2.1)

FD
11 (11.0)
5 (9.6)
6 (12.5)

Blood group incompatibility

0.169

No
82 (82.0)
40 (76.9)
42 (87.5)

Yes
18 (18.0)
12 (23.1)
6 (12.5)

TB (µmol/L)

0.058

Normal
18 (18.0)
13 (25.0)
5 (10.4)

High
82 (82.0)
39 (75.0)
43 (89.6)

DB (µmol/L)

0.057

Normal
59 (59.0)
26 (50.0)
33 (68.8)

High
41 (41.0)
26 (50.0)
15 (31.2)

IDB (µmol/L)

-

High
100 (100.0)
52 (100.0)
48 (100.0)

Birth weight

0.774

Low
34 (34.0)
17 (32.7)
17 (35.4)

Normal
66 (66.0)
35 (67.3)
31 (64.6)

Mean birth weight

0.705

Gestation

0.508

TB (µmol/L)

0.390

DB (µmol/L)

0.019

IDB (µmol/L)

0.552

TB: total bilirubin; DB: direct bilirubin; IDB: indirect bilirubin.

Table 4 presents a correlation of demographic and clinical characteristics of study participants. Maternal age had a positive correlation with gravidity and parity. Gestational age negatively correlated with total bilirubin (, ), direct bilirubin (, ), indirect bilirubin (, ), and birth weight (, ). Total bilirubin had a positive correlation with direct and indirect bilirubin, but a negative correlation with birth weight (, ). Indirect bilirubin also negatively correlated with birth weight (, ).

Table 4: Correlation of demographic and clinical characteristics of study participants.

Age
Gestation
Gravidity
Parity
TB
DB
IDB
BWt

Age

r

1
0.128
0.715
0.726
0.119
0.099
0.117
0.096

P

0.206
<0.001
<0.001
0.237
0.326
0.247
0.342

Gestation

r

1
0.065
0.013

P

0.522
0.902
0.002
0.017
0.003
<0.001

Gravidity

r

1
0.800
0.036

0.049
0.070

P

<0.001
0.723
0.731
0.627
0.490

Parity

r

1
0.069

0.084

P

0.496
0.562
0.404
0.810

TB

r

1
0.392
0.990

P

<0.001
<0.001
0.002

DB

r

1
0.289

P

0.004
0.268

IDB

r

1

P

0.020

BWt

r

1

P

BWt: birth weight.

Neonates delivered by mothers with formal occupation and those who had prolonged duration of labour were significantly more likely to have neonatal jaundice (OR = 4.174, ; OR = 2.389, ). Neonates with low birth weight also were significantly more likely to develop neonatal jaundice (OR = 2.347, ) (Table 5).

Table 5: Logistic regression of factors associated with neonatal jaundice (NNJ).

Parameter
OR (95% CI)
value

Age group (years)

≤20
1.500 (0.109–20.675)
0.762

21–30
5.304 (0.459–61.339)
0.182

31–40
3.765 (0.318–44.574)
0.293

>40
Reference

Sex

Male
0.923 (0.467–1.827)
0.817

Female
Reference

Occupation

None
Reference

Informal
0.640 (0.273–1.502)
0.305

Formal
4.174 (1.612–10.807)
0.003

Gravidity

Primigravida
Reference

Secundigravida
1.151 (0.515–2.571)
0.732

Multigravida
1.313 (0.557–3.097)
0.534

Parity

Nulliparous
Reference

Primiparous
0.833 (0.346–2.003)
0.683

Multipara
1.250 (0.542–2.882)
0.601

Vaginal bleeding

No
Reference

Yes
1.258 (0.485–3.267)
0.637

Mode of delivery

NVD
Reference

NVDA
2.596 (0.969–6.957)
0.058

CS
1.762 (0.674–4.603)
0.248

Duration of labour

Normal
Reference

Prolonged
2.389 (1.117–5.109)
0.025

ANC

No
2.042 (0.222–18.764)
0.528

Yes
Reference

Suckling

No
Reference

Yes
1.812 (0.575–5.710)
0.310

Traditional medicine

No
Reference

Yes
0.494 (0.194–1.258)
0.139

Mother’s sickling status

Negative
Reference

Positive
1.313 (0.533–3.231)
0.554

Mother’s G6PD status

Normal
Reference

PD
6.325 (0.791–50.577)
0.082

FD
1.725 (0.444–6.694)
0.431

Birth weight

Low
2.347 (1.022–5.391)
0.044

Normal
Reference

Only 17.3% of mothers had heard of neonatal jaundice: 20% of those with babies with NNJ and 12% of those without NNJ. School was the major source of information on neonatal jaundice (34.6%) followed by friends (15.4%), with TV being the least source (7.7%). Majority did not know that NNJ can cause damage to other organs in the body (90%), can be prevented (92.7%), or can be treated (85.3%) (Table 6).

Table 6: Mothers’ knowledge of neonatal jaundice.

Parameter
Total
NNJ
No NNJ

Heard of NNJ

No
124 (82.7)
80 (80.0)
44 (88.0)

Yes
26 (17.3)
20 (20.0)
6 (12.0)

Source

Friends
11 (42.3)
10 (50.0)
1 (16.7)

Health facility
4 (15.4)
4 (20.0)
0 (0.0)

School
9 (34.6)
4 (20.0)
5 (83.3)

TV
2 (7.7)
2 (10.0)
0 (0.0)

Can NNJ cause damage?

Do not know
135 (90.0)
89 (89.0)
46 (92.0)

No
5 (3.3)
5 (5.0)
0 (0.0)

Yes
10 (6.7)
6 (6.0)
4 (8.0)

Can NNJ be prevented?

Do not know
139 (92.7)
93 (93.0)
46 (92.0)

No
5 (3.3)
4 (4.0)
1 (2.0)

Yes
6 (4.0)
3 (3.0)
3 (6.0)

Can NNJ be treated?

Do not know
128 (85.3)
83 (83.0)
45 (90.0)

No
0 (0.0)
0 (0.0)
0 (0.0)

Yes
22 (14.7)
17 (17.0)
5 (10.0)

4. Discussion

This study sought to identify the possible factors associated with neonatal jaundice and assess maternal knowledge level of this condition at Winneba in the Effutu Municipality of Ghana.

Majority (54%) of neonates developed jaundice within 1–3 days after birth with 10% having it at birth. Birth weight and prolonged duration of labour were associated with neonatal jaundice; mothers had inadequate knowledge of neonatal jaundice.

Most of neonates with jaundice had low birth weight compared to those without jaundice. This is comparable to the findings of a study conducted in Southern Nigeria [13]. Our study also confirmed an earlier observation by Menon and Amanullah [14] and Devi and Vijaykumar [15] which associated neonatal jaundice with low neonatal birth weight in India. This is further buttressed by the finding of neonates with low birth weight being more likely to develop neonatal jaundice in the logistic regression.

Duration of labour was associated with neonatal jaundice, with majority of mothers with jaundiced neonates having prolonged duration of labour compared to the controls. This is similar to the finding of prolonged labour being strongly associated with jaundice in a community-based trial conducted by Scrafford et al. in Nepal [16]. This is most likely due to the clinical relationship between longer duration of labour and cephalohematoma, a known risk factor for severe hyperbilirubinemia [17, 18]. This finding is also supported by the observation of mothers with prolonged duration of labour being more likely to have neonates developing jaundice in our study.

A study conducted in Asia documented ABO incompatibility and G6PD deficiency as the leading causes of neonatal jaundice [19]. G6PD abnormality was found in 11 (12%) of the neonates with jaundice lower than the 25.5% found by Najib et al. [9] in South Iran, but higher than the 4.2% observed by Huang et al. [8] in a case-control study carried out in Taiwan.

ABO incompatibility has been significantly associated with neonatal hyperbilirubinemia [20]. The 18% ABO blood group incompatibility present among neonates with jaundice in our study is higher than the 5.9% reported by Najib et al. [9] in a prospective longitudinal study conducted in Iran, but lower than the 35.5% recorded by Menon and Amanullah [14] in a case-control study conducted in India.

Preterm neonates who have concurrent illnesses and physiologic derangements are more vulnerable to bilirubin neurotoxicity and have been recognized and studied in clinical trials. Bilirubin-related neurotoxicity can result in neonatal death or multisystem acute manifestations and long-term impairments, including irreversible athetoid cerebral palsy (CP) and speech, visuomotor, auditory, and other sensory-processing disabilities [21–23]. Gestational age negatively correlated with total bilirubin, direct bilirubin, indirect bilirubin, and birth weight. This is in line with the finding of significant hyperbilirubinemia among preterm neonates compared to termed neonates in a longitudinal study conducted by Sarici et al. [6] in Turkey. Preterm newborns are prone to developing jaundice due to immaturity of their bilirubin conjugating system, higher rate of haemolysis, increased enterohepatic circulation, and decreased caloric intake [24].

Neonates delivered by mothers with formal occupation were significantly more likely to have neonatal jaundice in this study. This is consistent with the findings of a community-based study conducted in Nigeria by Olusanya et al. [25] in which neonates born to mothers with full time employment were more likely to have jaundice.

Only 17.3% of mothers in this study had heard of neonatal jaundice. This is far lower than the finding of 96% of mothers being aware of neonatal jaundice in a cross-sectional study carried out among expectant mothers in Abia State, southeast Nigeria [11]. In their study, most of the participants got their information from health workers (50%) and friends (26%). However, in our study, school was the major source of information on neonatal jaundice (34.6%) followed by friends, with TV being the least source.

Goodman et al. [26] also found a high level of awareness among mothers (75%) with 74.1% having knowledge of the causes of neonatal jaundice. This is contrary to the finding of majority of our participants (90%) not knowing the cause of neonatal jaundice. Mothers' low knowledge of neonatal jaundice and its causes places them at a very grave risk of ignoring possibly avoidable predisposing factors and even signs that demand immediate management of jaundice in newborns making them develop jaundice and often being presented to healthcare facilities when irreversible neurotoxicity and brain damage might have occurred [26].

Our inability to assess the serum bilirubin, blood group, and G6PD status of neonates with jaundice and other genetic causes of neonatal jaundice (e.g., polymorphisms of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 gene) served as a limitation to this study. Also, the study is limited by the small number of neonates without jaundice used.

5. Conclusion

Low neonatal birth weight and prolonged duration of labour are associated with neonatal jaundice. Mothers had inadequate knowledge of neonatal jaundice and its causes. Education on the condition and its causes should be intensified especially by healthcare workers during regular antenatal visits. Other causes of neonatal jaundice need to be examined in the routine management of neonates.

Abbreviations

NNJ: | Neonatal jaundice
G6PD: | Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase.

Data Availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Ethical Approval

Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Cape Coast Institutional Review Board (UCCIRB) and the authorities of the hospital before starting the study.

Consent

Informed written consent was sought from the mothers, and approval for publication of research findings including participants’ details was obtained before enrollment into the study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Authors’ Contributions

Prince Adoba, Richard K. D. Ephraim, Patrick Adu, and Joseph-Josiah Bentsil conceived the study and participated in its design and coordination. Prince Adoba, Joseph-Josiah Bentsil, Maxwell Anderson, and Kate Adomakowaah Kontor were involved in the recruitment of participants, data collection, and analysis of samples. Prince Adoba, Richard K. D. Ephraim, Patrick Adu, and Samuel Asamoah Sakyi drafted the manuscript. Samuel Asamoah Sakyi, Maxwell Anderson, and Paul Nsiah provided analytic and statistical support. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank all the participants who agreed to be enrolled in the study and the management and laboratory staff of the Trauma and Specialist Hospital, Winneba, for their support.

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