Birds are the most conspicuous and significant component of freshwater wetland ecosystem. Presence or absence of birds may indicate the ecological conditions of the wetland area. The objectives of this study were to determine bird species abundance and their relationship with microclimate and habitat variables. Distance sampling point count method was applied for determining species abundance and multiple regressions was used for finding relationship between bird species abundance, microclimate and habitat variables. Bird species were monitored during November, 2007 to January, 2009. A total of 8728 individual birds comprising 89 species and 38 families were detected. Marsh Swamp was swarmed by 84 species (69.8%) followed open water body by 55 species (17.7%) and lotus swamp by 57 species (12.6%). Purple swamphen
Wetlands are characterized by shallow water overlying waterlogged soil, interspersed submerged and emergent vegetation [
Birds are an important component of biotic community of wetland ecosystems [
Distance sampling point count method is widely used to examine the avian species abundance in different habitats and the association of bird species with habitats characteristics and microclimates [
Malaysia is blessed with extensive wetland areas, that is, 3.5 to 4.0 million ha or 10.0% of the total land area. This total wetland area is divided into marshes, nipa swamps, mangrove, mudflats, freshwater swamps, peat swamp forests, lakes, rivers, sandy beaches, and rocky shore. Information about relative abundance of birds, habitat preference, and association with habitat characteristics and microclimate variables for various wetlands is lacking [
Paya Indah (a Malay translation of “beautiful swamp”) Wetland Reserve encompasses 3050 ha of lands, out of which 450 ha are under the administrative control of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Peninsular Malaysia. Presently study area is located within the quadrant of 101°10′ to 101°50′ longitude and 2°50′ and 3°00′ latitude (Figure
Location map of the Paya Indah Wetland Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia.
Marsh swamp was shallow water dominated by lush growths of aquatic vegetation such as sedges, reeds, rushes, and grasses. The plants grow with their stems partly in and partly out of the water. About 85% of the total marsh swamp areas are covered with water, while 15% are terrestrial [
Lotus swamp was shallow water body dominated by water lilies, sedges, reeds, and grasses. It allows plants to grow and reach the water surface. About 90% of the lotus swamp areas are covered by water, whereas 10% are terrestrial [
Open water body was a larger and deep area dominated by submerged vegetation while the edges in shallow water were covered by reeds, sedges, and grasses. About 90% of the total area was covered by water and 10% by dryland [
Bird species relative abundance was counted using distance sampling from count points from November 2007 to January 2009. One hundred and twenty-one point count stations at 300 m interval were established within three habitats, namely, Marsh Swamp (43 stations), Lotus Swamp (38 stations), and Open Water Body (40 stations), to avoid double counting of the same birds at more than one station. The birds were counted 15 consecutive times at a monthly interval for each station in order to obtain reliable estimates and reduce bias. The survey was conducted early in the morning from 0730 to 1100 hrs. Birds were counted at each station for 10 minutes following Gutzwiller [
The vegetation variables were sampled in three habitats using the quadrat method (10 m × 10 m) simultaneously at the sites where birds were counted. This method is one of the most commonly used and accepted methods to survey vegetation in a variety of habitats [
Plant samples were brought from the field and processed for plant pressure. The pressed plant samples were kept in the oven for drying for one week. Plants were identified using field guides and cross-checked with the samples kept in the Herbarium of the Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia.
The relative abundance (%) of bird species was estimated using the following expression:
Let
The sample means
During the study period, a total of 8728 individual birds, comprising of 89 species and 38 families, were recorded.
In Marsh Swamp, a total of 6,086 bird observations, that is, 69.7% of all detections, were recorded. The birds belong to 84 species and 37 families. Three species, purple swamphen—
Relative abundance of bird species recorded at three habitats of Paya Indah Wetland Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia.
Family name | Scientific name | Common name | No. of observations with habitat | |||||
Marsh swamp | Lotus swamp | Open water body | ||||||
Observation | % of all detection | Observation | % of all detection | Observation | % of all detection | |||
Rallidae | Purple swamphen | 798 | 9.14 | 78 | 0.89 | 25 | 0.29 | |
Pycnonotidae | Yellow-vented bulbul | 690 | 7.91 | 101 | 1.16 | 129 | 1.48 | |
Columbidae | Pink-necked green pigeon | 614 | 7.03 | 150 | 1.72 | 90 | 1.03 | |
Columbidae | Peaceful dove | 462 | 5.29 | 101 | 1.16 | 84 | 0.96 | |
Columbidae | Spotted dove | 386 | 4.42 | 56 | 0.64 | 67 | 0.77 | |
Hirundinidae | Pacific swallow | 208 | 2.38 | 39 | 0.45 | 85 | 0.97 | |
Rallidae | White-breasted waterhen | 200 | 2.29 | 38 | 0.44 | 25 | 0.29 | |
Ploceidae | Baya weaver | 173 | 1.98 | 7 | 0.08 | 52 | 0.60 | |
Sturnidae | Common myna | 166 | 1.90 | 17 | 0.19 | 51 | 0.58 | |
Ardeidae | Purple heron | 164 | 1.88 | 52 | 0.60 | 22 | 0.25 | |
Ardeidae | Yellow bittern | 162 | 1.86 | 42 | 0.48 | 11 | 0.13 | |
Sturnidae | Jungle myna | 154 | 1.76 | 15 | 0.17 | 117 | 1.34 | |
Alcedinidae | White-throated kingfisher | 128 | 1.47 | 51 | 0.58 | 42 | .48 | |
Estrildidae | Scaly-breasted munia | 125 | 1.43 | 36 | 0.41 | 49 | 0.56 | |
Estrildidae | Black-headed munia | 122 | 1.40 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0.03 | |
Sturnidae | Philippine glossy starling | 116 | 1.33 | 0 | 0 | 24 | 0.27 | |
Motacillidae | Richard’s pipit | 114 | 1.31 | 1 | 0.01 | 26 | 0.30 | |
Passeridae | Eurasian tree sparrow | 94 | 1.08 | 8 | 0.09 | 1 | 0.01 | |
Charadriidae | Red-wattled lapwing | 93 | 1.07 | 8 | 0.09 | 41 | 0.47 | |
Aegithinidae | Green iora | 89 | 1.02 | 17 | 0.19 | 7 | 0.08 | |
Turdidae | Oriental magpie robin | 84 | 0.96 | 19 | 0.22 | 13 | 0.15 | |
Meropidae | Blue-tailed bee-eater | 68 | 0.80 | 37 | 0.42 | 142 | 1.63 | |
Rhipiduridae | Pied fantail | 65 | 0.74 | 23 | 0.26 | 8 | 0.09 | |
Cisticolidae | Yellow-bellied prinia | 65 | 0.74 | 21 | 0.24 | 20 | 0.23 | |
Laniidae | Brown shrike | 64 | 0.73 | 16 | 0.18 | 12 | 0.14 | |
Rallidae | Common moorhen | 61 | 0.70 | 28 | 0.32 | 6 | 0.07 | |
Oriolidae | Black-napped oriole | 59 | 0.68 | 11 | 0.13 | 14 | 0.16 | |
Cuculidae | Lesser coucal | 48 | 0.55 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 0.14 | |
Sturnidae | White-vented myna | 44 | 0.50 | 7 | 0.08 | 6 | 0.07 | |
Anatidae | Lesser whistling duck | 37 | 0.42 | 0 | 0 | 199 | 2.28 | |
Ardeidae | Cinnamon bittern | 28 | 0.32 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0.07 | |
Aegithinidae | Common iora | 28 | 0.32 | 3 | 0.03 | 5 | 0.06 | |
Picidae | Common flameback | 27 | 0.31 | 10 | 0.11 | 3 | 0.03 | |
Sylviidae | Oriental reed warbler | 24 | 0.27 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0.01 | |
Rallidae | White-browed crake | 24 | 0.27 | 5 | 0.07 | 0 | 0 | |
Phasianidae | Red jungle-fowl | 21 | 0.24 | 8 | 0.09 | 7 | 0.08 | |
Ardeidae | Little heron | 20 | 0.23 | 3 | 0.03 | 0 | 0 | |
Campephagidae | Pied triller | 19 | 0.22 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 0.08 | |
Columbidae | Orange-breasted green pigeon | 17 | 0.19 | 15 | 0.17 | 0 | 0 | |
Sylviidae | Ashy tailorbird | 14 | 0.16 | 4 | 0.05 | 0 | 0 | |
Ardeidae | Black-crowned nightheron | 13 | 0.15 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Nectariniidae | Olive-backed sunbird | 13 | 0.15 | 1 | 0.01 | 2 | 0.02 | |
Cuculidae | Plaintive cuckoo | 12 | 0.14 | 13 | 0.15 | 0 | 0 | |
Anatidae | Cotton pygmy goose | 11 | 0.13 | 1 | 0.01 | 81 | 0.93 | |
Meropidae | Blue-throated bee-eater | 10 | 0.10 | 9 | 0.10 | 0 | 0 | |
Scolopacidae | Pintail snipe | 10 | 0.10 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0.02 | |
Nectariniidae | Brown-throated sunbird | 8 | 0.09 | 3 | 0.03 | 0 | 0 | |
Corvidae | Large-billed crow | 8 | 0.09 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 0 | |
Columbidae | Little green pigeon | 8 | 0.09 | 1 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | |
Estrildidae | White-headed munia | 8 | 0.09 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Turnicidae | Barred button quail | 7 | 0.08 | 1 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | |
Ardeidae | Grey heron | 7 | 0.08 | 4 | 0.05 | 1 | 0.01 | |
Sylviidae | Common tailorbird | 6 | 0.07 | 2 | 0.02 | 3 | 0.03 | |
Pycnonotidae | Olive-winged bulbul | 6 | 0.07 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Sylviidae | Rufous-tailed tailorbird | 6 | 0.07 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Ardeidae | Schrenck’s bittern | 6 | 0.07 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.01 | |
Cuculidae | Little bronze cuckoo | 5 | 0.06 | 2 | 0.02 | 2 | 0.02 | |
Cisticolidae | Zitting cisticola | 5 | 0.06 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0.06 | |
Accipitridae | Black-shoulder kite | 4 | 0.05 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Coraciidae | Dollar bird | 4 | 0.05 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Ardeidae | Great egret | 4 | 0.05 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Cuculidae | Greater coucal | 4 | 0.05 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0.02 | |
Ardeidae | Little egret | 4 | 0.05 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Pachycephalidae | Mangrove whistler | 4 | 0.05 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.01 | |
Nectariniidae | Plain sunbird | 4 | 0.05 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Rallidae | Water cock | 4 | 0.05 | 1 | 0.01 | 3 | 0.03 | |
Rallidae | Baillon’s crake | 3 | 0.03 | 11 | 0.13 | 0 | 0 | |
Nectariniidae | Black-throated sunbird | 3 | 0.03 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Caprimulgidae | Savanna nightjar | 3 | 0.03 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.01 | |
Muscicapidae | Asian brown flycatcher | 2 | 0.02 | 2 | 0.02 | 0 | 0 | |
Alcedinidae | Common kingfisher | 2 | 0.02 | 1 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | |
Sturnidae | Hill myna | 2 | 0.02 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Caprimulgidae | Large-tailed nightjar | 2 | 0.02 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.01 | |
Podicipedidae | Little grebe | 2 | 0.02 | 2 | 0.02 | 7 | 0.08 | |
Laniidae | Long-tailed shrike | 2 | 0.02 | 1 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | |
Dicruridae | Ashy drongo | 1 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Accipitridae | Black baza | 1 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.01 | |
Phasianidae | Blue-breasted quail | 1 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0.02 | |
Corvidae | House crow | 1 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0.03 | |
Sylviidae | Inornate warbler | 1 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Nectariniidae | Little spiderhunter | 1 | 0.01 | 1 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | |
Jacanidae | Pheasant-tailed jacana | 1 | 0.01 | 6 | 0.07 | 0 | 0 | |
Sylviidae | Rusty-rumped warbler | 1 | 0.01 | 1 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | |
Picidae | Speckled piculet | 1 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Scolopacidae | Common sandpiper | 0 | 0.01 | 2 | 0.02 | 0 | 0 | |
Picidae | Rufous woodpecker | 0 | 0.00 | 2 | 0.02 | 0 | 0 | |
Columbidae | Thick-billed green Pigeon | 0 | 0.00 | 1 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | |
Nectariniidae | Copper-throated sunbird | 0 | 0.00 | 1 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | |
Campephagidae | Ashy minivet | 0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0.03 | |
Total | 6086 | 1097 | 1545 |
A total of 1,097 bird observations (12.6%) were recorded in Lotus Swamp. The birds belong to 57 species and 30 families. Pink-necked green Pigeon—
In open water body habitat a total of 1,545 bird observations (17.7%) of all detections were recorded that belong to 55 bird species and 33 families. The results indicated that lesser whistling duck—
Microclimate data indicated that the marsh swamp had 28.1°C mean temperature (25–31°C), 95.3% mean relative humidity (89–97%), and mean 233.65 Lux light intensity (16–520 Lux). The habitat variables showed that marsh swamp area was covered by emergent vegetation (59.1%), submerged vegetation (13.6%), grasses (4.8%), and shrubs (3.7%), while 18.7% of the land was barren. In addition, 67 tree species were recorded along the lake edges in the marsh swamp area (Table
List of microclimate and microhabitat variables of marsh swamp, lotus swamp, and open water body at the Paya Indah Wetland Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia.
S. no | Variables | Mean value (range) | ||
Marsh swamp | Lotus swamp | Open water body | ||
1 | Microclimate variables | |||
(a) Mean temperature (°C) | 28.1°C (25–31°C) | 27.50°C (26–30°C) | 28.5°C (26.5–30°C) | |
(b) Mean relative humidity (%) | 95.3% (89–97%) | 96.45% (94–97%) | 95.5% (94–97%) | |
(c) Mean light intensity (LUX) | 233.65 (16–520 Lux) | 260.60 (150–362 Lux) | 438.16 (351–517 Lux) | |
2 | Microhabitat variables | |||
(A) | 81.3% | 77.0% | 76.7% | |
(a) Emergent vegetation (EMR) | 59.1% | 55.4% | 30.8% | |
(b) Submerged vegetation (SUB) | 13.6% | 15.4% | 61.5% | |
(c) Grasses (GRS) | 4.8% | 5.0% | 4.5% | |
(d) Shrubs (SHU) | 3.7% | 1.2% | 3.2% | |
(B) | 67 | 17 | 6 | |
(i) Diameter (cm) | ||||
51 | 0 | 5 | ||
12 | 15 | 1 | ||
4 | 2 | 0 | ||
(ii) Height (meter) | ||||
50 | 13 | 3 | ||
16 | 4 | 1 | ||
1 | 0 | 2 |
The lotus swamp had 27.5°C mean temperature (26–30°C), 96.4% mean relative humidity (94–97%), and mean 260.60 Lux light intensity (150–362 Lux). On the other hand, the habitat variables indicated that 77.0% of the lotus swamp habitat was covered with vegetation, that is, emergent vegetation (55.4%), submerged vegetation (15.4%), grasses (5.0%), and shrubs (1.2%). In addition, 23.0% of the area was bare land and walking paths. There were 17 tree species in the lotus swamp habitat (Table
Microclimate data indicated that the open water body habitat had 28.5°C mean temperature (26.5–30°C), 95.5% mean relative humidity (94–97%), and mean 438.16 Lux light intensity (351–517 Lux). Microhabitat variables showed 76.7% of the area was covered with vegetation, while the rest was dry land area including walking paths. Out of 76.7% of the total vegetated area, 61.5% was dominated by submerged vegetation, 30.8% by emergent vegetation, 4.5% by grasses, and 3.2% by shrubs. Besides, there were six tree species in open water body (Table
The RDA ordination biplot diagram of marsh swamp habitat indicated that cotton pygmy geese and lesser whistling ducks had a strong association with the submerged vegetation. In addition, white-browed crakes, yellow bitterns, purple herons also showed a positive correlationship with the submerged vegetation. Schrenck’s bitterns, common moorhens, purple swamphens, black-headed munias and white-headed munias indicated strong positive association with the emergent vegetation, while oriental reed warblers, baya weavers, grey herons, yellow-bellied prinias and cinnamon bitterns showed a close association with the emergent vegetation and trees. Furthermore, rufous-tailed tailorbirds, plaintive cuckoos, blue-throated bee-eaters, lesser coucals, common flamebacks, brown-throated sunbirds and orange-breasted green pigeons showed a close relationship with the humid areas dominated by trees having the diameter of 16–30 cm and the height of <10 m. Oriental magpie robins, white-breasted waterhens, Richard’s pipits, red junglefowl, barred button quails, yellow-vented bulbuls and spotted doves indicated strong association with the grassy areas. Moreover, pink-necked green pigeons, jungle mynas, black-naped orioles, orange-breasted Green Pigeons and White-vented Mynas showed a strong relationship with the shrubs. Pintail Snipes, common ioras, pied trillers, common tailorbirds and pied fantails also showed a close relationship with light intensity, while blue-tailed bee-eaters, white-throated kingfishers, philippine glossy starlings, ashy tailorbirds, and green ioras indicated an association with the densely vegetated areas (Figure
Ordination plot from a redundancy analysis of the distribution of birds of marsh swamp in relation to 14 environmental variables (for details see Table
The ordination biplot diagram of lotus swamp habitat showed that red-wattled lapwings and white-vented mynas had high relationship with temperature. Notably, blue-tailed bee-eaters, orange-breasted green pigeons, pacific swallows, plaintive cuckoos, yellow-bellied prinias and pink-necked green pigeons showed a strong association with the trees (having height 11–20 m), shrubs and also light intensity. In addition, common flamebacks, black-naped orioles, spotted doves and brown shrikes also showed a positive relationship with the shrubs and trees. Blue-throated bee-eaters, oriental magpie robins, eurasian tree sparrows, white-throated kingfishers and peaceful doves indicated a significant correlationship with the trees having the diameter <15 cm and the height <10 m. Pied fantails and yellow-vented bulbuls also had a strong relationship with relative humidity and vegetation cover greater than 75%. Additionally, white-breasted waterhens, white-browed crakes, purple swamphens and pheasant-tailed jacanas were highly correlated with the emergent vegetation. Red junglefowl, baya weavers, scaly-breasted munias, grey herons, and jungle mynas had a close relationship with the area dominated by grasses (Figure
Ordination plot from a redundancy analysis of the distribution of birds of lotus swamp in relation to 14 environmental variables (for details see Table
The RDA biplot diagram of the open water body habitat revealed that purple swamphens, purple herons, yellow bitterns, cinnamon bitterns and yellow-bellied prinias had a strong association with the emergent vegetated areas having cover of 25–50%. In addition, common moorhens and yellow-bellied prinias had an association with the emergent vegetation and grasses. Meanwhile, scaly-breasted munias, peaceful doves, oriental magpie robins, spotted doves, Richard’s pipits, lesser coucals, brown shrikes and common mynas were also highly related with the grasses. Cotton pygmy geese, little grebes and lesser whistling ducks indicated a close relationship with the submerged vegetation, light intensity and temperature. On the other hand, pied fantails, pink-necked green pigeons and yellow-vented bulbuls highlighted a strong association with the shrubs. Baya weavers, blue-tailed Bee-eaters, pied trillers, red junglefowl and green ioras showed a close link with the trees (having diameter of 16–30 cm and the height of 11–20 m), and the vegetation cover of 51–75%. Jungle mynas, large-billed crows, white-vented mynas, Philippine glossy starlings, and black-naped orioles indicated a strong association with the humid area dominated by trees having the diameter of <15 cm and the height of <10 m (Figure
Ordination plot from a redundancy analysis of the distribution of birds of open water body in relation to 14 environmental variables (for details see Table
It is necessary to integrate spatial distribution with species characteristics in the analysis of factors responsible for distribution of bird species in wetlands. About 40% of the lakes at the Paya Indah Wetland Reserve are open water bodies, dominated by submerged and floating vegetation such as pond weeds (
Previously, several studies have demonstrated an association between bird species distribution and wetland habitats [
The results further showed that the waterbirds, for instance, the ducks, geese, and grebes, had a strong correlationship with the submerged vegetation, temperature, and light intensity. This might be due to greater abundance and higher diversity of macroinvertebrates and fish. The macro-invertebrates of the Paya Indah Wetland Reserve consisted of snails, arachnids, insect larvae, and crustaceans. The higher abundance and richness of macro-invertebrates and fish occurred in the submerged vegetation [
Anatidae avoided the dense emergent vegetation and preferred submerged vegetation instead because this vegetative cover potentially restricted the movement and foraging efficiency of the birds in the study area. Such types of finding also have been reported by Van Rees-Siewert and Dinsmore [
Additionally, the swamphens, moorhens, and crakes were observed using the dense stands of emergent vegetation [
The results showed that the terrestrial birds, such as the minivets, tailorbirds, kites, bee-eaters, and crows, were strongly associated with the trees in the study area. This might be due to the trees that attracted diverse insects and provided suitable foraging surfaces, shelters, and nesting sites for the bird species. Moreover, the weavers, munias, cuckoos, coucals, lapwings, snipes, and waterhens showed a positive correlationship with the emergent vegetation, grasses, relative humidity, temperature, and ground vegetation cover. The grasses provided a variety of flowers and seeds that attracted the insects, whereby the seeds and insects were the main sources of energy for these bird species.
The bee-eaters, fantails, dollar birds, mynas, sparrows, kingfishers, orioles, pigeons, starlings, bulbuls, and trillers indicated a strong relationship with the shrubs, trees, relative humidity, light intensity, and ground vegetation cover in the wetland reserve. The reason was that these birds preferred different microhabitats like the marsh swamp, lotus swamp, open water body, dryland and patches of shrubs, and microclimate, such as the temperature, humidity, and light intensity. The shrubs and trees provided a diversity of flowers and fruits that attracted a wide array of insects. The berries and insects were the main food resources for these birds. In addition, the shrubs and trees provided hiding covers from predators and inclement weather and suitable nesting sites for them.
The robins, doves, junglefowl, coucals, pipits, munias, shrikes, quails, and mynas indicated a strong association with the grasses, shrubs, trees, relative humidity, light intensity, and ground vegetation. The variety of vegetation [
The vegetation structure and floristic composition were the key factors that affected the habitat selection of the birds and indicated where and how the birds used the resources [
Overall, the results of the constrained redundancy ordination analysis indicated that the relationship between the birds and habitats was shaped by microhabitat factors such as ground cover (i.e., the proportion of soil covered with vegetation), plant species richness (i.e., the number of plant species), vegetation type (i.e., trees, shrubs, grasses, emerged and submerged vegetation, sedges, reeds, ferns, and herbs), vegetation structure (i.e., vegetation height and diameter), and microclimate factors (i.e., temperature, humidity, and light intensity). These factors influenced on the distribution, diversity and density, of avian species in the study area.
Besides, other factors, for instance, water quality, such as the water of the some part of lakes was too blackish colour; no bird was observed to use that area. In contrast, nearby other lake having clear water with bluish colour many birds were observed to utilize that area and food resources such as fruiting trees, that is, Ficus, Syzygium, Fragraea, Glabra, and Cinnamons. During fruiting season, these trees abundantly preferred by fruit-eating birds such as bulbuls, starlings, pigeons, and orioles. In addition, such purple swamphen fly from edge to deep water to pluck sink fruit of water lily and bring it to dry place to eat and shelters from harsh weather conditions and predators for example, due to emergence of western marsh harrier, and also during raining bittern, moorhens, and swamphen hided into reed beds and pigeons and doves fly away from foraging sites to dense shrubs and trees to get shelter. These sightings showed that water quality, food resources, and shelter played major roles in the distribution of birds in the study area.
Marsh swamp was heavily used by wetland bird species (69.7%) as compared to open water body and lotus swamp. Results revealed that wetland bird species have adapted a fairly unique set of microhabitat characteristics such as vegetation composition and vegetation structures, and microclimate variables are key factors that influenced the species abundance, distribution, and diversity.
See Table
List of vegetation recorded at the Paya Indah Wetland Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia.
Family name | Scientific name | Local name |
---|---|---|
Tree Species | ||
Anacardiaceae | Mangga | |
Annonaceae | Kenanga | |
Apocynaceae | Pohon | |
Jelutong | ||
Araliaceae | ||
Arecaceae | Coconut tree | |
Oil Palm | ||
Casuarinaceae | Rhu | |
Clusiaceae | Geronggang | |
Penaga | ||
Pitch apple | ||
Combretaceae | Jelawai | |
Dipterocarpaceae | Meranti temak | |
Balav sengkawang air | ||
Seraya Batu | ||
Ebenaceae | Bedil lalat | |
Elaeocarpaceae | Mendung | |
Mendung | ||
Euphorbiaceae | Blush | |
Balik angin | ||
Perahikan | ||
Fabaceae | Semarak api | |
Lauraceae | Medang teja | |
Lecythidaceae | Putat | |
Leguminosae | Acacia | |
Pink shower | ||
Amaltas | ||
Acacia | ||
Batai | ||
Gapis | ||
Spetir daun tebal | ||
Kekatong | ||
Asam jawa | ||
Serengan jantan | ||
Loganiaceae | Tembusu | |
Lythraceae | Bungor | |
Malvaceae | Kelumpang jari | |
Meliaceae | Sentang | |
Moraceae | Pudu | |
Ara | ||
Ara | ||
Tempinis | ||
Keledang | ||
Ara | ||
Ara | ||
Myrtaceae | Kelat | |
Kelat | ||
Kelat | ||
Kelat | ||
Kayu putih (gelam) | ||
Kelat jambu laut | ||
Kelat | ||
Kelat jambu | ||
Kelat | ||
Rutaceae | Pepauh | |
Sapindaceae | Japanese fern leaf tree | |
Bunga tanjung | ||
Nyatoh | ||
Simaroubaceae | Marakuh | |
Sterculiaceae | Kasah | |
Kalumpang | ||
Mengkulang jari | ||
Mata lembu | ||
Kelompang | ||
Thymelaeaceae | Ramin melawis | |
Shrub species | ||
Melastomataceae | ||
Dilleniaceae | ||
Emergent vegetation | ||
Cyperaceae | Water chestnut | |
Nymphaeaceae | Indian or bean or lotus | |
Water lily | ||
Rubra water lily | ||
Philydraceae | Wooly water lily | |
Grass Species | ||
Cyperaceae | Three square bulrush | |
Gramineae | Cogon grass | |
Spike grass | ||
Poaceae | Carpet grass | |
Buffalo grass | ||
Sedge Species | ||
Cyperaceae | Marsh sedge/nut rush | |
Poaceae | Rush | |
Fern and Moss Species | ||
Blechnaceae | Climbing fern | |
Thelypteridaceae | Fern | |
Lycopodiaceae | Creeping club moss | |
Salviniaceae | Giant or kariba weed | |
Gleicheniaceae. | Fern tree | |
Reed Species | ||
Philydraceae | Phragmites | |
Typhaceae | Cattail |
Tem: temperature, RH: relative humidity, LUX: light intensity.
CB: ground vegetation cover 26–50%, CC: ground vegetation cover 51–75%, CD: ground vegetation cover 75–100%, SUB: submerged vegetation, EMR: emergent vegetation, GRA: grasses, SHU: shrubs, DA: tree diameter <15 cm, DB: tree diameter 16–30 cm, DC: tree diameter 31–45 cm, HA: tree height <10 m, HB: tree height 11–20 m, HC: tree height 21–30 m.
Ash Tai: ashy tailorbird, Bar But: barred button quail, Bay Wea: baya weaver, Bla Cro: black-crowned nightheron, Bla HeM: black-headed munia, Bla Nap: black-naped oriole, Blu TaB: blue-tailed bee-eater, Blu ThB: blue-throated bee-eater, Brh Kit: brahminy kite, Bro Shr: brown shrike, Bro ThS: brown-throated sunbird, Che WiC: chestnut winged cuckoo, Cin Bit: cinnamon bittern, Com Flm: common flameback, Com Ior: common iora, Com Moo: common moorhen, Com Myn: common myna, Com TaB: common tailorbird, Cot PyG: cotton pygmy goose, Dol Bir: dollar bird, Eur AsT: eurasian tree sparrow, Gre Egr: great egret, Gre Cou: greater coucal, Gre Ior: green iora, Gre Her: grey heron, Jun Myn: jungle myna, Lar BiC: large-billed crow, Les Cou: lesser coucal, Les WhD: lesser whistling duck, Lit BrC: little bronze cuckoo, Lit GrP: little green pigeon, Lit Her: little heron, Oli BaS: olive-backed sunbird, Oli WiB: olive-wined bulbul, Ora BrP: orange-breasted green pigeon, Ori Mag: oriental magpie robin, Ori ReW: oriental reed warbler, Pac Swa: pacific swallow, Pea Dov: peaceful dove, Phi GlS: Philippine glossy starling, Pie Fan: pied fantail, Pie Tri: pied triller, Pin GrP: pink-necked green pigeon, Pin Sni: pintail snipe, Pla Cuc: plaintive cuckoo, Pur Her: purple heron, Pur SwH: purple swamphen, Red JuF: red junglefowl, Red WaL: red-wattled lapwing, Ric Pip: Richard’s pipit, Ruf TaT: rufous-tailed tailorbird, Sav NiJ: savanna nightjar, Sca BrM: scaly-breasted munia, Sch Bit: Schrenck’s bittern, Spo Dov: spotted dove, Wat Coc: water cock, Whi BrW: white-breasted waterhen, Whi BrC: white-browed crake, Whi HeM: white-headed munia, Whi ThK: white-throated kingfisher, Whi VeM: white-vented myna, Yel Bit: yellow bittern, Yel BeP: yellow-bellied prinia, Yel VeB: yellow-vented bulbul, Zit Cis: zitting cisticola.
M. N. Rajpar developed the experimental design, conducted research, collected and analyzed data, and drafted paper. M. Zakaria Guided, reviewed and edited the paper.
Authors would like to thank the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Peninsular Malaysia, for allowing us to conduct this study. This research was partially funded by the Fundamental Grant Research Scheme 01-10-07-291FR and Forestry Sector Research and Development Project, Pakistan, Forest Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan.