ISRN BotanyVolume 2013 (2013), Article ID 829424, 11 pageshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/829424

Research Article

Ethnobotanical Studies of Port Harcourt Metropolis, Nigeria

A. B. Nwauzoma1,2 and Magdalene S. Dappa¹

¹Department of Applied & Environmental Biology, Rivers State University of Science & Technology, PMB 5080, Port Harcourt 500001, Nigeria²Embrapa Agroenergia-PQEB-Final W3 Norte, Asa Norte, 7077091 Brasilia, DF, Brazil

Received 25 April 2013; Accepted 26 May 2013

Academic Editors: F. A. Culianez-Macia, G. T. Maatooq, and T. L. Weir

Copyright © 2013 A. B. Nwauzoma and Magdalene S. Dappa. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract.

The objective of this study was to show the different ways medicinal herbs are used by the indigenous people in Port Harcourt metropolis (07 °3′ E, 04° 51′ N) in the Niger Delta region, Nigeria. One hundred and fifty structured questionnaires were administered, including oral interviews to herbal practitioners and users located at different parts of the city. Also, three popularly known herbal companies—Emiola naturalist care, Yem-Kem international herbal center, and Abiola medical herbal center—were included as they are healthcare providers, especially the medium income group. The results showed that a total of 83 plant species were recorded and classified according to their family, botanical, common, and local names. Also, the plant part used, mode of preparation, and type of ailment cured were included. The most frequently used plant parts were leaves followed by barks, roots, and fruits and with malaria fever as the most treated ailment. Deforestation, agricultural expansion, and fire were noted as the most important factors threatening the availability of these plants. The authors are of the opinion that paying special attention to the medicinal plants found in the area through conservation may help to amplify their role in the healthcare system, poverty alleviation, and environmental protection.

1. Introduction

Herbal or traditional medicine has been a major aspect of the sociocultural heritage in Africa for hundreds of years even before the advent of conventional medicine. It was once believed to be primitive and wrongly challenged by foreign religions dating back during the colonial rule in Africa and subsequently by the conventional or orthodox medical practitioners [1]. Plant-derived medicines have been part of traditional health care in most parts of the world for thousands of years and there is increasing interest in them as sources in the treatment of diseases [2–4]. The majority of people in developing countries depend on herbalists for their medical care. This is so in Port Harcourt metropolis, which is the hub of oil and gas activities in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The city comprises of people from different social and economic strata, ranging from the oil company executive to the water vendor. All these categories of people seek medical care and other social services in the city. Therefore, most of the people especially the poor resort to herbal medicine because of its affordability, accessibility, and acceptability. The treatment and control of diseases by the use of available medicinal plants in a locality will continue to play significant roles in medical health care implementation in the developing countries of the world [5]. The objective of this survey was to document the herbal plants used by the people in Port Harcourt metropolis, the part used, how they are used, and the type of ailment they cure. Also, the need for the integration of herbal medicine into the formal health care system, complementary relationship amongst health care practitioners and delivery of health services, especially to the low income group in both rural and urban areas is discussed.

2. Materials and Method

2.1. Study Area and Data Collection

Port Harcourt, the capital of the oil rich Rivers State (Figure 1), is located in Southeastern Nigeria (07° 3′ E, 04° 51′ N, and 10 m altitude above sea level) in the humid forest zone of the Niger Delta region, Nigeria. It is densely populated and home to multinational oil and gas companies and as such witnesses the influx of people in search of better living. This population increase often stretches public facilities, including hospitals (which are few) leading to alternative sources like herbal medicine. This makes the ethnobotanical studies of the area very imperative. Therefore, a structured questionnaire was administered to different herbal medicine dealers and users of herbal medicine located at different points in the city—mile 1 market, mile 3 market, flyover area, and three popularly known herbal companies: Emiola naturalist care, Yem-Kem international herbal center, and Abiola medical herbal center, all situated in Port Harcourt metropolis. The herbal companies selected in this study have been in practice for many years in the metropolis and serve as healthcare providers to many people in the city and partner with government during trade fair exhibitions. They did not sponsor this work research or influence the report.

Figure 1: Map of Rivers State (Nigeria) showing Port Harcourt metropolis.

The data in this study were derived from the questionnaires that were administered and oral interviews granted by the individual herbal dealers and the companies. The respondents were both men and women from ages 40 years and above, representing the age group with good knowledge of herbal remedies. The indigenous plants collected during the oral interviews were identified with the aid of floras of the area using [6, 7] and authenticated by Dr. B. O Green (Taxonomist), Department of Applied and Environmental Biology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria, where the specimen vouchers were deposited. Ethnomedical confirmations were carried out using [8] and a total of 150 questionnaires were administered and a total of 83 plants species were identified in the study.

3. Results

Table 1 shows the individual plant species, their botanical, common, and local (Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa) names as well as their families, the use of each plant, and which part(s) of the plant that is being used. Our study shows that the plants have different ethnomedical applications by the people as antiseptic, laxatives, purgative, anticonvulsant, expectorants, anthelmintic, and sedatives in the treatment of malaria, rheumatism, diarrhea, infertility, jaundice, dysentery, gonorrhea, fever, pains, respiratory problem and poultice, and so forth.

Table 1: Ethnobotany of some common plant species in Port Harcourt city, Nigeria.

S/no.
Common
Botanical
Family

Local names

Use(s)
Part(s)

name
name
name
Yoruba
Ibo
Hausa
used

1
Ginger
Zingiber officinale (Rose)
Zingiberaceae
Jinga
Chita
Ata-ile
Detoxify liver, bronchitis
corm

2
Edible-stemmed vine
Cissus quadrangularis (L.)
Vitaceae
Ogbakiiki
—
Daddor
Caries, dysmenorrhoea, urinary disorders
Tuber, stem

3
Hibiscus
Hibiscus acetosella
Malvaceae

Akese
Dysentery
Leaves

4
Chinese pur/Burweed
Triumfetta rhomboidea (Jacaq.)
Tilaceae
Odo
Yanka-dafi
Molanganrsn/ako bolobolo
Gonorrhea
Leaf, FlowerFruit

5
Bush okra/Jew fiber telteria/Jews Mallow
Corchorus olitorius
Titiaceae
Ewedu
Ariraa/ulogburu
Lalo
Vegetable, blood purifier
Leaf

6
African star apple
Chrysophyllum albidum (G. Don)
Sapotaceae
Odara/udala
Agbalumo
Agwaliba
Delicacy, antinausea
Fruit

7
Fruited gourd
Coccinia barteri
Cucurbitaceae

Ewe-oju
Venereal diseases, skin infections, earache
Whole plant

8
Tomatoes
Solanum lycopersicum
Solanaceae
Tomati
Tomato
Tomati
Vegetable, Vitamin C
Fruit

9
Pepper, Chili
Capsicum annuum L.
Solanaceae
Ata wewe
Ose
Tatashi
Delicacy, seasoning
Fruit

10
Curry leaf
Thymus vulgaris
Lamiaceae
Efinrinwewe
Nch-anwu

Antibiotic, carminative
Leaves

11
Orange, Sweet
Citrus sinensis (Linn.)
Rutaceae
Osan
Or-oma
Lmu
Dysentery, fever, headache, antimicrobial agent, anthelmintics, toothache, antiscorbutic
Twigs, stem bark, fruits, peel

12
Brimstone tree
Morinda lucida (Benth.)
Rubiaceae
Oruwo
Eze-ogu
—
Fever
Leaves

13
African copaiba, balsamtree, niger-opal, maaje
Daniellia oliveri
Leguminosae
Iya,
Kadaura,
Ozabwa, Maje
Dysentery, diarrhoea, toothache, urinary infection, astringent, toothache
Gum, bark

14
Water leaf
Talinum triangulare (Willd.)
Portulacaceae
Gbure
Nte-oka/inene
Alenyruw-a
Vegetable
Leaf

15
Lemon grass
Cymbopogon citratus
Poaceae
Koriko-oba
Nch-anwu
—
Malaria
Leaf

16
Hog plum
Spondias mombin L.
Anacardiaceae
Iyeye
Ngu-lung-wu
Isada
Infertility
Fruit

17
Cashew nut
Anacardium occidentale L.
Anacardiaceae
Kaju
Sas-hu
Kanju
Cough
Bark, Fruit

18
Mango
Mangifera indica L
Anacardiaceae
Mongora

Mango
Malaria
Leaf, bark

19
Cocoyam, Wild taro
Colocasia esculentum (L.) Schott
Araceae
Koko, kokof-un, kokoibile,
Ede
Gwamba
Anaemia, wounds, rheumatism, poison antidote
Tuber, leaves

20
Giant milk weed/sodom apple
Calotropis procera
Asclepeceae
Bom-ubomu

Tumifafiya
Measles
Leaf

21
Bitter leaf
Vernonia amygdalina (Del.)
Asteraceae
Ewuro
Onu-gbu, olug-bu
Shiwaka
Pile, lower sugar, vegetable
Leaf

22
Goat weed, floss flower
Ageratum conyzoides L.
Compositae
Imi-esu
ulaujula,
Ahenhen
Wounds, ulcers, craw-craw, digestive disturbance,diarrhoea, emetic, skin diseases, antipyretic, gonorrhoea, sleepingsickness, eye wash
Whole plant, leaves, root

23
Siam weed
Chromolaena odorata (Linn.)
Compositae
Akintola
Awo-lowo,
Obiarakara
Antimicrobial, dysentery, headache, malariafever, toothache, haemostatic, skin diseases
Leaves, stem-twigs

24
Coconut
Cocos nucifera
Arecaceae
Agbon
Aku-beke
Mosara
The water neutralizes poison/drug
Nut

25
Pepper fruit
Dennettia tripetala
Annonaceae
Igbere,
Nmi-mi
—
Insect repellant, fever, cough, toothache, stimulant
Fruit, leaves, stem, twigs

False thistle, leopard’s tongue Bear's breech, white's ginger,
Acanthus montanus
Acanthaceae
Ahon-ekun, irunmuarugbo,
Nyin-yiog-wu

Syphilis, cough, emetic, urethral discharge,purgative, boils, anaemia, anthelmintics
Stem-twig, leaves, roots

26
Resurrection plant, life plant
Bryophyllum pinnatum
Crassulaceae
Eru-odundun,
—
Abomoda
Cough, diarrhoea, dysentery, wounds, fever, sedatives, diuretic, absc-esses, antifungal, epilepsy, antimicrobial, anticancer
Leaves, roots, leaf sap

27
Fertility tree, tree of life
Newbouldia laevis
Bignoniaceae
Akoko
Ogirisi
Aduruku
Round worms, elephantiasis, dysentery, malaria, convulsions,migraine, cough, yellow fever, stomachache, hernia, infertility, earache
Bark, leaves, root

28
African tulip
Spathodea campanulata (P. Beauv.)
Bignoniaceae
Akoko
Ogili-si, ogirisi
Aduruku
Asthma
Leaves

29
Pineapple
Ananas comosus
Bromeliaceae
Ope oyinbo
Nkw-aba
—
Antihypertension constipation
Unripe fruit

30
Cock’s comb, Heliotrope
Heliotropium indicum L
Boraginaceae
Agogo-igun, Apari-Igun,
Ogb-eria-kuko
Kalkashin korama
Convulsions, cancer, worms, rectal enema, mouth-wash
Whole plant

31
African cucumber, bitter gourd, balsam pear
Momordica charantia L.
Cucurbitaceae
Ejinrinw
Alo-ose
Kakayi
Diabetes, piles, convulsions, jaundice, sore, nervousdisorders, diabetic recipe, emetic, nightblindness, aphrodisiac, dysmenorrhoea, anthelmintic, antimicrobials
Whole plant, seeds, fruitroot

32
Fluted pumpkin
Telfaria occidentalis Hook. F.
Cucurbitaceae

Ugu

Antianaemic, blood tonic
Leaf

33
Colocynth, wild gourd.
Citrullus colocynthis (L.)
Cucurbitaceae
Egunsi
Elili/egwusi
Egbsi/guna
Laxative digestion
Fruit

34
Paw paw
Carica papaya (Linn.)
Caricaceae
Ibepe
Okworo-gbogbo
Gwanda
Boil, purgative
Latex fruit

35
Velvet, black tamarid, tumble tree
Dialium guineense (Wild)
Leguminosae
Awin,
Icheku,
Tsamiyar kurmi
Fever, coughs, bronchitis, toothache, astringent, diuretic
Leaves, fruit, bark, twigs

36
White yam
Dioscoreae cayennensis
Dioscoreaceae danzaria
Ako isu
Ji-ocha
Doya
Antidiarrhea
Tubers

37
Physic nut
Jatropha curcas L.
Euphorbiaceae
Botuje,
Olulu-idu
lapalapa, Zugu, Ol
Ringworm, eczema, scabies, fever, guinea worms, herpes, rectalenema, black tongue, whitlow, impotence, irregularmenses, convulsion, smallpox
Seed, leaves, stem,roots, sap

38
Caper bush
Capparis thonningii
Capparaceae
Eka-nawodi

ewon ekiri
Fever, headache, mental disorder, aphrodisiac, cough.
Root

39
African Walnut
Tetracarpidium conophorum
Euophorbiaceae
Awusa, asal
Ukpa
Hawuusa
Aphrodisiac
Fruit

40
Soya bean
Glycine max
Leguminosae
Ewa

Laxative
Seeds

41

Grewia sp
Tiliaceae
Ila-oko, lakolako

Religious purpose, mystic, soup with okra-like taste
Fruits

42
African/Native/Bush mango
Irvingia gabonensis
Irvingiaceae
Oro mopa
Ogb-ono
Mamujigoro
Condiment
Seed

43
Garlic
Allium sativum L.
Alliaceae
Aayu
Ayo-ishi
Tafarunua
Antibiotic antidiabeticAnti-hypertension
Bulb

44
Onion
Allium cepa Alabasa
Alliaceae
Alubosa
Alu-bosa
Yabasi
Antidiabetic
Bulb

45
Aloe, West African aloe
Aloe barteri
Liliaceae

Aloe

Ringworm, anthelmintics, aphrodisiac, amenorrhoea, cough, skin infections, astringent, antitumour, pile, fruits for preventing snake bite
Leaves

46
Scent leaf, mint
Ocimum gratissimum
Lamiaceae
Efinrin nla
Nchanwu
Dadoya
Stomach ache
Leaf

47
Azadirachta indica (A. Juss.)
Neem tree
Meliaceae
Dongoyaro
Og-wu akom
Maina
Boils, antimalaria
Leaf, bark

48
Moringa oleifera Lam.
Horse radish tree, Moringa tree, “NeverDie,” drumstick tree
Moringaceae
Ewe-ile, Eweigbale,
Okweoyeibe,
zogale, Bagaaruwar makka
Inflammatory diseases, asthma, antipyretic, cough, earache, liver and pancreas diseases, venereal diseases, anthelmintic, hysteria, diarrhoea, diuretic diseases
Leaves, roots, stem bark, fruit

49
Persea americana (Mill)
Avocado pear
Lauraceae
Igba/apoka
Ube-beke

Antihypertensionstomach ulcer
Fruit

50
Plantain
Musa paradisiaca L.
Musaceae
Ogedeagagba
Abrika/Okirima
Okamu/ayaba
Potent astringenthigh iron
Unripefruit

51
Guava
Psidium guajava L
Myrtaceae
Gurofa
Gova
Gwaabaa
Malaria
Leaf

52
Groundnut, peanut
Arachis hypogaea
Fabaceae
Egpa

Gedda
Oil as solvent, antimicrobials, insomnia
Nuts

53
Crab’s eye
Abrus precatorius
Papilionaceae
Iwerejeje/ojuologbo
Anya nnunu
Da marzaya
Cough
Leaf

54
Cam wood
Baphia nitida
Sterculiaceae

Uri

Decoration
Latex

55
Bamboo
Bambusa vulgaris L.
Poaceae
Oparun
Atosi

Gonorrhoea, abortifacient, anthelmintics, emmenagogue, skinrashes of HIV/AIDS
Leaves, young shoots

56
Water willow
Deinbollia pinnata
Sapindaceae
Ogiri-egba,

Ekusi-Oloko
Cough, bronchial asthma, aphrodisiac
Leaves, root

57
Lemon grass
Cymbopogon citratus
Poaceae
Koriko-oba
Nche awula

Malaria
Leaf

58
Water leaf
Talinum triangulare
Portulacaceae
Gbure
Nte-oka/inene
Alenyruwa
Rat poison, vegetable
RootLeaf

59
Pepper, chili
Capsicum annuum L.
Solanaceae
Ata wewe
Ose/totashi
Barkono
Stimulant
Fruit

60
Soursop,
Annona muricata
Annonaceae

Sawamsop

Relaxing nerves
Leaf

61
Wild Cassava
Jatropha gossypifolia
Euphorbiaceae
Botuje pupa, Binidi zugu
Ake mbogho

Ringworm, ascaris, antitumour, malaria, dysentery, dysmenorrhoea
Stem latex

62
Black Mangrove
Avicennia africana
Avicenniaceae
Ogbun,
Ofun

Abortifacient, detergent
Leaves, stem, twigs

63
Baobab
Adansonia digitata
Bombacaceae
Ose,
Igiose,
kukaa, kulambali
Malaria, asthma, diarrhoea, kidney and bladder diseases,demulcent, prophylactic, antihistaminic, skindiseases, caries, antimicrobial
Leaves, fruit pulp, bark

64
Morning glory
Ipomoea mauritiana
Convolvulaceae
Atewogba, Tanpopo

Rheumatism, asthma, dropsy.
Whole plant

65
Bhadram, cherula
Aerva lanata
Amaranthaceae
Aje, Efunile
Eweowo,
Alhaji, Furfurata, fatumi
Ulcers, wounds, snake bite, diuretic, purgative, anthelmintic, sorethroat, kidney and bladder stones
Whole plant

66
Acalypha
Acalypha fimbriata
Euphorbiaceae
Jinwinini,

kandiri
Syphilis, asthma, anthelmintics, ulcers, rheumatism, antimicrobial and antifungal
Leaves

67
Acalypha
Acalypha godseffiana
Euphorbiaceae
Jinwinini

Skin infection, Antimicrobials
Leaves, twigs

68
Hennaplant
Lawsonia inermis
Lythraceae
Lali,
Laali.
Lallee
Spermatorrhoea, jaundice, gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, ulcers,menorrhagia, astringent, skin diseases, malaria
Leaves, flowers, bark

69
Wild lettuce
Launaea taraxacifolia
Compositae
Yanrin,

Yamurin, Nonanbarya
Yaws, fracture management
Leaves

70
Stinging bean
Mucuna sloanei
Leguminosae
Ewe-ina,
yerepewerepe
Kakara, osese
Haemorrhoids, diuretics, micturition problems in children, skindiseases
Seeds, roots

71
Cow-hage, cow-itch plant, velvet bean
Mucuna pruriens
Leguminosae
Esisi,
Werepe
Abbala, Kakara
Intestinal worms, genitourinary diseases.
Hairs on the pods

72
Devil's gut, parasitic vine
Cassytha filiformis
Lauraceae
Omoniginigini
omonigelegele,
sulunwahi.
Anthelmintics, antimicrobials, antifungal
Stem twigs

73
Morinda
Morinda morindoides
Rubiaceae

Oju-Ologbo

Fever, jaundice, asthma,dysentery, colic, emmenagogue, vermifuge, constipation
Root, bark, leaves, fruit

74
Millet
Millettia thonningii
Leguminosae
Ito,
okeokpa
Tuburku, Ajukwu
Fever, cough, respiratory ailment, anthelmintic, ophthalmia
Roots, bark

75
African Linden
Mitragyna inermis
Rubiaceae

Okobo,
Giyeya
Dysentery, leprosy, antipyretic, diuretic, gonorrhoea
Bark

76
Sensitive plant
Mimosa pudica
Mimosaceae
aluro

Patanmo,
Guinea worms piles, kidney disease, fistula, boils
Leaves

77
Bullet wood
Mimusops kummel
Sapotaceae

Uku
Emido
Antipyretic, astringent, mouth wash, stomachic
Stem bark, seeds

78
Sword bean, horse bean
Canavalia ensiformis
Leguminosae

Ponpondo,
sese-nla
Antibiotic, antiseptic
Seed

79
Celosia
Celosia laxa
Amaranthaceae
Marugbo sanyantan,
Ajemawofo,
Mannafaa, sanyantan,
Antiscorbutic, purgative
Leaves

80
Indian chrysanthemum
Chrysanthellum indicum
Compositae

Abilere, Oyigi
Boils, fever, gonorrhoea, jaundice, heart-trouble, insecticide
Whole plant

81
Rattle box, rattle pea
Crotalaria retusa
Leguminosae
Koropo
Akidimuo
saworo, Yara,
Fever, cirrhosis, liver lesions, dysentery, colic, vermifuge
Root, seeds, juice ofpods, leaves

82
Melon-pumpkin
Cucurbita maxima
Cucurbitaceae
Elegede,
Apala,
Kabeewaa
Tapeworm, diuretic, taenicide, otitis, utensils
Seeds, fruits

83
Flame of the forest
Delonix regia
Leguminosae
Seke
seke,
ayin.
Diuretic, anthelmintics, astringent, leucorrhoea
Leaves, bark, seeds, flower

3.1. Ailment, Mode of Preparation Dosage, and Administration of Some of the Common Herbs

3.1.1. Skin Diseases, Malaria Fever, Anaemia, Diabetes, and Bronchitis

Fresh leaves and bark of Mangifera indica are boiled together with the leaves of Papaya and neem. A glassful of the mixture is taken thrice daily to treat fever, anaemia, and diabetes. It is also used for bathing early in the morning to treat malarial fever.

3.1.2. Stomach Ache, Skin Infection, Diabetes, Loss of Memory, and Prostate Cancer

The tender part of the stem of Vernonia amygdalina is used as chewing stick and the bitter water is swallowed daily as remedy for stomach ache. Alternatively, fresh leaves are pounded in a mortar and the juice is pressed out, and a pinch of salt is added to 3 tablespoons of the undiluted juice and taken as a drink 3 times daily to bring immediate relief to stomach ache. For skin infection such as ringworm, itching, rashes, and eczema, the pure undiluted extract of bitter leaf is applied to the affected part daily. For diabetes, 10 handfuls of the fresh leaves are squeezed into 10 liters of water; a glassful is taken 4 times daily for 1 month to reduce sugar level drastically and it also repairs the pancreas. In the case of memory loss, take 1 glass twice daily for at least 2 months, while application of the solution soothes inflamed joints arthritis and eradicates pains.

3.1.3. Malaria Fever, Diabetes, Stomach Ulcer, and Convulsion

The leaves of Papaya are squeezed into one liter of water and a glassful is taken 3 times daily for 7 days to serve as a good treatment for malaria fever and jaundice. Similarly, the green leaves are squeezed into 1 liter of water; one glassful is taken three times daily to treat diabetes and constipation. For intestinal ulcer, unripe Papaya fruit is cut into pieces and the peel and seeds are removed and soaked in five liters of water for 4 days. It is sieved and 1/2 glass is taken 3 times daily for two weeks. The white milky sap of unripe Papaya contains a high percentage of papain which is used for chronic wounds or ulcers. The dry fallen Papaya leaves are washed and ground into powder. Two tablespoonfuls of the ground powder are added into 1/2 glass of palm kernel oil, stirred properly, and rubbed over the body to arrest high fever and convulsion.

3.1.4. Anaemia, Intestinal Ulcer, and Heart Problem

The dried peels of Musa paradisiaca are ground into powder; one tablespoon of the powder is mixed with four tablespoons of honey and licked three times daily for two weeks for intestinal ulcer. Some quantity of the root and fresh leaves are boiled separately; 1/2 and a full glass is drank daily for 1 week to intestinal ulcer and anaemia, respectively. Eating of unripe fruit either roasted, boiled, pounded, or processed into flour is a good treatment for diabetes.

3.1.5. Cough, Malaria Fever, and Repellant

Decoction from leaves of Cymbopogon citrate with onion and honey is used to cure cough, taken 3 times daily for 3 days. The leaf is boiled along with other herbs to treat malaria fever by bathing with it every night for 2 days. The leaf is burnt in homes to serve as repellant for mosquitoes.

3.1.6. Fever and Lactation

The bark, root, and leaf of Morinda lucida are used in infusion or decoction for the treatment of yellow fever and other forms of fever to be taken 1/2 glass, 2 times daily, and also bathing, for 3 days. The very bitter leaf decoction is applied to the breast of women at weaning of their infants to improve lactation. Twigs are used as chewing stick.

3.1.7. Malaria, Diabetes, Dysentery, Mouth Thrush, Toothache, and Sore Gums

The twig of Anacardium occidentale is used as chewing stick for mouth thrush, tooth ache, and sore gum. Decoction of the bark is a remedy for malaria fever, by drinking 1/2 glass 3 times daily. The bark and leaves are boiled, and a glass is taken twice daily for dysentery.

3.1.8. Fibroids, Cataract, Gonorrhea, Aphrodisiac, Cough, Inflammatory Symptoms, Toothache, and Sore Throat

Seed of Spondias mombin is boiled together with immature palm-nuts and 1/2 glass is taken thrice daily for 2 months for fibroid. Fresh leaves are ground and the juice is squeezed and mixed with one teaspoonful of lime juice and applied as eye drop twice daily for cataract. Fresh leaves are boiled and one glassful is drank thrice daily for gonorrhea. Decoction of leaves is used as an aphrodisiac. Decoction of the bark is taken for severe cough, toothache, and sore throat.

3.1.9. Abdominal Pains, Ulcers, Skin Disease, Dressing of Wound, and Prophylactic

Decoction of the whole plant of Ageratum conyzoides is a remedy for abdominal pains. Leaf juice is used for dressing wounds, ulcers, and other skin diseases. Leaves are used as tonic to aid fertility, because it prevents early miscarriage. It is also used as prophylactic and cure for trachoma in cattle.

3.1.10. Threatened Abortion, Convulsion, Epilepsy, Skin Infections, Conjunctivitis, Migraine, and Earache

A medium size-pot is filled with the fresh bark of Newbouldia laevis and boiled water for a long time. The preparation is then used to wash face and head every morning and night; oral taking of 1/2 glass of preparation twice daily for 6 days cures migraine and also stops vaginal bleeding in threatened abortion. Leaves and roots are boiled together and administered for fever, convulsion, and epilepsy. Stem bark is used for treating skin infections. Decoction of leaves is used as an eye wash in conjunctivitis. Boiled leaves extract is used to treat general malaria.

3.1.11. Typhoid Fever, Menstrual Flow, Healthy Skin, Purgative, Diuretic, Anthelmintic, Expectorant, and Abortifacient

The fruit of Ananas comosus is cut, cooked, and drank for typhoid fever. The unripe fruit can be used as a purgative, diuretic, antihelmintic, expectorant, and abortifacient and is also taken to regulate and enhance menstrual flow. Fruit peel is used topically for healthy skin. The ripped fruit is taken regularly to recover from typhoid fever.

3.1.12. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, Stomach Troubles, Purgative, and Fungal Infection

Fruits of Citrullus colocynthis are recommended for the treatment of stomach troubles and sexually transmitted diseases. Fruit and leaf decoction is used as a purgative in man and animal. Seed shell powdered and mixed with palm oil is rubbed on skin to treat fungal infections.

3.1.13. Ringworm, Scabies, Eczema, Sexually Transmitted Diseases, Thrush Bleeding, Wounds, Toothache, and Skin Disease

The latex of Jatropha curcas is used to treat skin disease such as ring worm, scabies, and eczema. Twigs are used as chewing stick to prevent tooth decay, oral thrush, bleeding, wounds, and tooth ache. Roots are used to treat sexually transmitted diseases. Leaves are added to hasten fermentation of cassava. Decoction of leaves is used to sterilize umbilicus of new born babies.

3.1.14. Fibroid Improves Sperm Count, Fertility, and Menstrual Flow

Seed of Tetracarpidium conophorum is used in the treatment of fibroid. Boiled seeds are eaten to improve sperm count in men. Leaf juice is used to improve fertility in women and to regulate menstrual flow.

3.1.15. As Food

Leaves of Telfairia occidentalis are of highly nutritive value as vegetable for soup and other local dishes. Leaves are washed and the juice squeeze is mixed with milk and taken as a blood tonic. The boiled seeds are eaten as delicacy and source of oil. Some of the plants are used as herbs food and other uses.

The knowledge of the indigenous people about contraceptives was one of the informal innovative discoveries in this work. In this context, Ageratum conyzoides, Tetracarpidium conophorum, Rhaphiostylis beninensis, Lonchocarpus cyanescens, carpolobia alba, and Chrysophyllum albidum are used to invoke sterility, while Moranthodoa leucantha increases sexual vigor and Mucuna soloanei and Senna occidentalis are used by indigenous ladies as contraceptives. Few plant species known to be “poisonous,” for example, Ricinus communis and Scleria verrucosa were reported to be very potent. We also observed that some tuberous plant species like Colocasia esculenta and Dioscorea rotundata and Jatropha gossypifolia and Musa paradisiaca are used to cure sexually transmitted diseases, to regularize menstruation, and to increase fertility. We further discovered that those plants with high nutritive value like Colocasia esculenta, Basella alba, Telfairia occidentalis, Glycine soja, Gnetum africana, Arachis hypogea, and Solanum lycopersicum are cultivated mainly for commercial purposes, as they are sold in nearby markets. Others like Hibiscus senensis, Moringa oleifera and Sida acuta in addition to food and medicinal values, have become beautiful ornamental plants. Dracaena arborea, Anacardium occidentale, Basella alba, Spathodea campanulata, Allium sativum, Mucuna sloanei, Ocimum basilicum, Sida acuta, Laportea aestuans, and Trema orientalis are used to treat constipation, indigestion, abdominal pain, and dysentery. Our result also shows that the people use Xanthosoma spp, Calotropis procera, Vernonia amygdalina, Ageratum conyzoides, Chromolaena odorata, Newbouldia laevis, Spathodea campanulata, and Adenopus breviflorus for skin diseases like wound, tumor, boils, burns, and cuts. Dioscorea rotundata, Jatropha curcas, Ricinus communis, Irvingia gabonensis, Aloe barteri, Ocimum basilicum, Azadirachta indica, Baphia nitida, Mitracarpus scabrum, Glyphaea brevis, and Trema orientalis are also used for the above purposes.

Respiratory disorders like cough, cold, tuberculosis, and asthma are cured using single herb or mixture of herbs like Calotropis procera, Dennettia tripetala, Carica papaya, Allium sativum, Cymbopogon citratus, Chrysophyllum albidum, and Zingiber officinale. Our study shows that most herbs are known to cure malaria and typhoid fever which are endemic in Port Harcourt metropolis: Anacardium spondias, Dennettia tripetala, Ananas comosus, Adenopus breviflorus, Ipomea involucrate, Carica papaya, Securinega virosa, Hyptis pectinata, Sida acuta, Azarachta indica, Psidium guajava, Bambusa vulgaris, Cymbopogon citratus, Morinda lucida Citrus sinensis, Murraya koenigii, Capsicum annum Chrysophyllum albidum, Glyphaea brevis, Corchorus olitorius, and Trema orientalis.

4. Discussion

This is the first ethnobotanical study of Port Harcourt metropolis in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Our study shows that the 83 plant species identified were useful as food and in the treatment of different human ailments, showing that traditional medical practice is an important component of our everyday life. Our findings are similar to [9]. Reference [1] suggested the need to institutionalize the traditional medicine in concert with orthodox medicine to achieve an effective national health care system in Nigeria. The authors maintained that an effective health cannot be achieved in Africa by orthodox medicine alone unless it has been complemented with traditional medicine, in support of [10].

The questionnaire and interviews gathered indicate that most people in the Metropolis depend on traditional medicine for their health needs because of their poor economic conditions. This is one of the major reasons why traditional medicine has continued to thrive in both rural and urban areas in Nigeria. The utilization of medicinal plants in traditional medicine was found to be effective, cheap, and practical. References [11, 12] noted the growing interest on the medicinal properties of a number of common plants. The practice is fast developing due to poor economic situation, expensiveness, and inadequate availability of drugs. Reference [13] stated that the use of plants and products in health care is, even much higher particularly in those areas with little or no access to modern health services. These medicinal plants have been underutilized in the orthodox medicine but have now been recognized in ethnomedicinal preparation.

Gender and age influenced the traditional knowledge of our respondents. Males within 45–70 years have medicinal knowledge than females. This may be due to their involvement in trade or personal experience of using these plants for a very long time. In addition, the younger generation does not seem to have much trust in the traditional medicine system which may be attributed to increasing use of allelopathic medicines which are readily available and potent. Our findings also show that the indigenous people value some of these herbs for medicinal purposes than as food condiments. For instance garlic is more useful in treating fever, cough, constipation, asthma, nervous disorder, hypertension, ulcer, and antihelmentic than in mere seasoning of food. The same applies to onion, curry leaf, ginger, and scent leaf.

Traditional medicinal practices are known to still be an important component of everyday life in many regions of the world [14–16]. The use of plants in healthcare is even much higher particularly in areas with little or no access to modern health services [13]. Reference [1] gave a comprehensive treatise on the need to institutionalize traditional medicine into the health scheme according to WHO guidelines [17]. Most of the plants were used to treat malaria fever, underlying the importance of this disease in the region.

Conservation of indigenous plant species of medicinal importance is necessary as they remain source of health and wealth. There is need for closer collaboration between herbal medical practitioners, medical doctors, and other stakeholders in medical practice to bring traditional healers closer by engaging them in laboratory work, training as well as getting information on traditional prescriptions for specific diseases. Both traditional and orthodox medicines should complement each other, and their integration or harmonization is necessary for quality healthcare delivery, especially in the rural communities. The ethnobotany of Port Harcourt metropolis has been documented. Various plants have dual significance first as food, secondly as medicinal plants and can have some active constituents for future pharmaceutical analysis.

Conflict of Interests

There is no conflict of interests, as the information therein is purely for research purposes. The authors do not support self-medication and further suggest getting advice from medical practitioners before taking any of these herbs.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the local informants and herbal healers who shared their knowledge with them.

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