The optimum growth temperatures for
In the last decade, Ostry [
In this sense, mycotoxin research has focused in recent years on the emerging group, along with the major
Chemical name, molecular formula, molecular weight, and CAS number for the main
Group and chemical class | Mycotoxin | Chemical name | Molecular formula | Molecular weight (g/mol) | CAS number |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|||||
|
|||||
Benzopyrones/pyranones | Alternariol (AOH) | 3,7,9-Trihydroxy-1-methyl-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-6-one | C14H10O5 | 258.226 | 641-38-3 |
Alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) | 3,7-Dihydroxy-9-methoxy-1-methyl-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-6-one | C15H12O5 | 272.253 | 23452-05-3 | |
|
|||||
Cyclic tetrapeptides | Tentoxin (TEN) | Cyclo[N-methyl-L-alanyl-L-leucyl-( |
C22H30N4O4 | 414.498 | 28540-82-1 |
Dihydrotentoxin (DH-TEN) | Cyclo-(L-leucyl-N-methyl-(E)-dehydrophenylalanyl-glycyl-N-methyl-L-alanyl) | — | — | — | |
Isotentoxin (isoTEN) | Cyclo-(L-leucyl-N-methyl-L-phenylalanyl-glycyl-N-methyl-L-alanyl) | — | — | 65452-16-6 | |
|
|||||
|
|||||
|
|||||
Benzopyrones/Pyranones | Altenuene (ALT) | (2S,3S,4aS)-2,3,7-Trihydroxy-9-methoxy-4a-methyl-2,3,4,4a-tetrahydro-6H-benzo[c]chromen-6-one | C15H16O6 | 292.284 | 889101-41-1 |
Altenuisol (AS) | 2,7,9-Trihydroxy-3-methoxybenzo[c]chromen-6-one | C14H10O6 | 2.742.256 | 42719-66-4 | |
Altenusin (ALN) | 2-(4,5-Dihydroxy-2-methylphenyl)-6-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzoic acid | C15H14O6 | 29.026.806 | 31186-12-6 | |
Infectopyrone | (2E,4E)-5-(4-Methoxy-5-methyl-6-oxopyran-2-yl)-3-methylhexa-2,4-dienoic acid | C14H16O5 | 2.642.738 | — | |
|
|||||
Amine/amide metabolites | Tenuazonic acid (TeA) | (5S)-3-Acetyl-1,5-dihydro-4-hydroxy-5-[(1S)-1-methylpropyl]-2Hpyrrol-2-one | C10H15NO3 | 197.231 | 27778-66-1 |
Altersetin (ALS) | 2H-Pyrrol-2-one,1,5-dihydro-4-hydroxy-5-(1-hydroxyethyl)-3-(1S,2R,4aS,6R,8aR)-1,2,4 a,5,6,7,8,8a | C24H33NO4 | 399.241 | 485815-64-3 | |
|
|||||
Perylenequinones | Altertoxin I (ATX I) | (1S,12aR,12bS)-1,2,11,12,12a,12b-Hexahydro-1,4,9,12atetrahydroxy-3,10-perylenedione | C20H16O6 | 352.337 | 56258-32-3 |
Altertoxin II (ATX II) | (7aR,8aR,8bS,8cR)-7a,8a,8b,8c,9,10-Hexahydro-1,6,8c-trihydroxyperylo[1,2-b]oxirene-7,11-dione | C20H14O6 | 350.321 | 56257-59-1 | |
Altertoxin III (ATX III) | (1aR,1bS,5aR,6aR,6bS,10aR)-1a,1b,5a,6a,6b,10a-Hexahydro-4,9-dihydroxy-perylo[1,2-b:7,8-b′]bisoxirene-5,10-dione | C20H12O6 | 348.306 | 105579-74-6 | |
Alterperylenol/Alteichin (ALTCH) | (1S,12aR,12bS)-1,4,9,12a-tetrahydroxy-2,12b-dihydro-1H-perylene-3,10-dione | C20H14O6 | 350.32 | 88899-62-1 | |
Stemphyltoxin I (STE I) | Perylo(1,2-b)oxirene-7,11-dione, 7a,8a,8b,8c,9,10-hexahydro-1,6,8c,9-tetrahydroxy-, (7aR-(7aalpha,8aalpha,8bbeta,8calpha,9alpha))- | C20H14O7 | 366.324 | 102694-30-4 | |
Stemphyltoxin III (STE III) | (7aR,8aR,8bS,8cR)-7a,8a,8b,8c-Tetrahydro-1,6,8c-trihydroxyperyleno[1,2-b]oxirene-7,11-dione | C20H12O6 | 348.309 | 102694-32-6 | |
|
|||||
Anthraquinones | Macrosporin A | 1,7-Dihydroxy-3-methoxy-6-methyl-9,10-anthraquinone | C16H12O5 | 28.426.348 | 22225-67-8 |
Altersolanol A (As-A) | (1R)-1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-1,2 |
C11H16O8 | 336.293 | 22268-16-2 | |
|
|||||
Dihydroisocoumarin | Monocerin | (2S,3aR,9bR)-6-Hydroxy-7,8-dimethoxy-2-propyl-2,3,3a,9b-tetrahydro-5H-furo[3,2-c]isochromen-5-one | C16H20O6 | 3.083.264 | 30270-60-1 |
Altenuic acids I, II, III | — | C15H14O8 | — | — |
Toxicological data are limited to the above-mentioned major mycotoxins, and even these data are incomplete, with neither good bioavailability studies nor long-term clinical studies available [
The benzopyrone group is the most studied among all the
Although there have been no
The perylenquinone derivatives, such as ATX I, ATX II, ATX III, Alterperylenol (ALTCH; synonym Alteichin), and stemphyltoxins (STE) are minor metabolites of
Altenusin (ALN) is a biphenyl derivative isolated from different species of fungi, which presents antioxidant properties and the ability to inhibit several enzymes, such as myosin light chain kinase, sphingomyelinase, acetylcholinesterase, HIV-1 integrase and trypanothione reductase, cFMS kinase, and pp60c-SRc kinase in the low micromolar concentration range, and it may serve as a chemotherapeutic agent to treat trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis [
Altersetin (ALS) was reported to possess broad antimicrobial activity against several multidrug-resistant bacterial demonstrating potent activity against several pathogenic Gram-positive bacteria and moderate
Anthraquinones and tetrahydroanthraquinone analytes are secondary metabolites widely distributed in natural biosources, which show significant biological activity. So far, several compounds of the alterporriol and altersolanol families have been reported, including the emerging
The
The altenuic acids consist of three closely related isomeric colorless substances (altenuic acids I, II, and III) containing one carbon-methyl and one methoxyl group. The structures of the altenuic acids I and III remain unknown, but their molecular formula (C15H14O8), which is identical to that of altenuic acid II, has been determined [
Monocerin is a polyketide metabolite isolated from several fungal species showing antifungal, phytotoxic, insecticidal, and plant pathogenic properties [
Other
Chemical structure of the main
The stability of
Mycotoxins can be partially metabolized in living organisms, leading to the formation of conjugated toxins by the conjugation of the parent compound with glucose, sulfates, and other sugar moieties. The term “masked mycotoxins” firstly appeared defining a mycotoxin derivative that may be cleaved during digestion in living organisms to release its parent form. However, these conjugated mycotoxins are currently known as “modified mycotoxins” after a more recent comprehensive classification [
Toxicokinetic studies have so far focused on toxins with a dibenzo-
A comparative toxicokinetic study showed that TeA was completely bioavailable after oral administration in both pig and broiler chicken. Absorption was deemed to be slower in broiler chickens (
A systematic literature search was conducted using the databases Medline, Web of Science, and Scopus with the focus on the following keywords: Alternaria mycotoxins analysis, determination, occurrence, toxicity, stability, metabolism, etc. The period of time framed was 2005–2017. Fifty-eight articles, which met the criteria to be included into the study, were analyzed and classified. To facilitate data presentation three groups were established based on the analyzed food/feed matrices, namely, (i) cereals and cereal by-products, (ii) vegetables, fruits, and derived products (including juices, wine, vegetable seeds, spices, herbal infusions, and dry fruits), and (iii) mixed matrices studies, which combine the analysis of different foods belonging to both groups (i) and (ii), and products nonclassifiable into groups (i) and (ii). The information was double-checked to select bibliographies of relevant literature, and a thorough evaluation was performed to summarize the information about extraction method, analytical methodology, and studied mycotoxins limits of detection quantitation.
Mycotoxin regulations are based on risk assessment (hazard and exposure), the parameters of which are still hard to establish, meaning that a concrete interpretation of the consequences for consumer’s health remains elusive. Furthermore, it remains difficult to detect toxin metabolites at low levels in complex food matrices. Therefore, validated analytical methods ensuring robustness, sensitivity, and reliability are needed.
In the lasts years,
Although basic SLE/LLE represented approximately 50% of the extraction techniques for
With regard to mycotoxins determination, liquid chromatography (LC) was by far the most used technique, from other generally reported chromatographic techniques for, such as thin-layer chromatography (TLC) or gas chromatography (GC). High- and ultraperformance LC (HPLC and UPLC) have provided new possibilities allowing high-throughput screening by shortening the analysis time, while maintaining the chromatographic principles and improving the speed, sensitivity, and resolution [
Consequently, UPLC and HPLC, coupled to MS/MS (including high resolution MS; HRMS and time-of-flight MS; QTOF-MS), represented the 80% of the determinations, rising to 95% when only considering cereals and cereal by-products. Other detectors such as ultraviolet (UV: 7%) and diode array detection (DAD: 7%) were also used, followed by the enzyme immunoassay technique (EIA: 4%). In the case of
Table
Matrix | Analytical method | Extraction method | Mycotoxins | LOD ( |
LOQ ( |
Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bread | HPLC-MS/MS | SLE: EtOAc | AOH | 20 | 60 | [ |
AME | 5 | 15 | ||||
ALT | 10 | 30 | ||||
|
||||||
Barley | U-HPLC-OrbitrapMS | QuEChERS | AOH | — | — | [ |
ALT | — | — | ||||
|
||||||
Barley | LC-HRMS | QuEChERS | AOH | — | — | [ |
AME | — | — | ||||
|
||||||
Wheat | HPLC-DAD | SLE: ACN/KCl, CH2Cl2 | AOH | — | 10 | [ |
AME | — | 10 | ||||
ALT | — | 50 | ||||
TeA | — | 60 | ||||
|
||||||
Wheat | LC-ESI-MS/MS | SLE: H2O, EtOAc/HCl | AOH | 0.75 | 2.5 | [ |
AME | 0.1 | 0.3 | ||||
TeA | 2.5 | 7.5 | ||||
|
||||||
Wheat | UHPLC-MS/MS | SLE: ACN/H2O | AOH | 0.3 | — | [ |
AME | 0.02 | — | ||||
ATX-I | 0.3 | — | ||||
Infectopyron | n.d. | — | ||||
Macrosporin | 0.5 | — | ||||
TEN | 0.15 | — | ||||
|
||||||
Wheat | HPLC-MS/MS | SLE: ACN/H2O/FA | AOH | 3 | 7 | [ |
AME | 8 | 15 | ||||
TEN | 2.5 | 5 | ||||
|
||||||
Wheat | HPLC-MS/MS | SLE: ACN, SPE clean-up | AOH | 1 | 4-5 | [ |
AME | 5-6 | 15–20 | ||||
TEN | 0.5–0.7 | 2 | ||||
TeA | 0.1 | 0.3–0.5 | ||||
|
||||||
Wheat and wheat-based food | UPLC-MS/MS | SLE: ACN-SPE | TeA | 2 | — | [ |
AOH | 8 | — | ||||
TEN | 0.8 | — | ||||
AME | 0.2 | — | ||||
|
||||||
Maize | LC-MS/MS | SLE: ACN/H2O/AA | AME | 0.02 | — | [ |
Macrosporin | 0.05 | — | ||||
Monocerin | 0.05 | — | ||||
|
||||||
Maize | HPLC-MS/MS | SLE: ACN/H2O/AA | AOH | — | — | [ |
AME | — | — | ||||
TEN | — | — | ||||
Macrosporin | — | — | ||||
|
||||||
Maize and wheat | HPLC-ESI-MS/MS | SLE: ACN/H2O | AOH | 0.75 | 2.25 | [ |
AME | 0.1 | 0.3 | ||||
Macrosporin | 0.05 | 0.15 | ||||
TEN | 0.4 | 1.2 | ||||
|
||||||
Rice | UPLC-ESI-MS/MS | SLE: ACN/H2O | AOH | — | 0.3 | [ |
AME | — | 0.3 | ||||
TEN | — | 0.1 | ||||
|
||||||
Rice, oat flakes, and barley | UPLC-MS/MS | SLE: ACN/H2O/AA, hexane | AOH | 0.50–0.85 | 1.00–1.70 | [ |
AME | 0.67–1.32 | 1.35–2.52 | ||||
ALT | 1.19–2.21 | 2.38–4.43 | ||||
TeA | 0.61–1.18 | 1.21–2.35 | ||||
TEN | 0.46–0.91 | 0.93–1.82 | ||||
ATX I | 1.01–1.81 | 2.02–3.62 | ||||
AOH3S | 1.24–2.41 | 2.48–4.82 | ||||
AOH3G | 0.74–2.11 | 1.49–4.23 | ||||
AME3S | 0.79–4.16 | 1.58–8.32 | ||||
AME3G | 0.77–2.50 | 1.53–4.99 | ||||
|
||||||
Sorghum and millet | HPLC-ESI-MS/MS | SLE: ACN/H2O/AA | AOH | — | — | [ |
AME | — | — | ||||
TEN | — | — | ||||
ATX-I | — | — | ||||
TeA | — | — | ||||
Macrosporin A | — | — | ||||
|
||||||
Sorghum and infant cereals | HPLC-MS/MS | SPE stable isotope dilution assay | TeA | 0.2 | 0.6 | [ |
|
||||||
Cereals | LC-DAD/ MALDI-TOF-MS | SLE: ACN/H2O/AA-SPE | AOH | — | — | [ |
AME | — | — | ||||
TEN | — | — | ||||
|
||||||
Complex feed matrices | UPLC-MS/MS | QuEChERS | AOH | — | 1.0–5.0 | [ |
AME | — | 0.5–2.5 | ||||
ALT | — | 1.0–10.0 | ||||
TEN | — | 2.5–5.0 | ||||
|
||||||
Maize, wheat, feed, silage, and feed ingredients | U-HPLC-orbitrapMS | SLE: ACN/H2O/AA | AOH | — | — | [ |
AME | — | — | ||||
ALT | — | — | ||||
TeA | ||||||
TEN | — | — | ||||
|
||||||
Beer | HPLC-ESI-IT-MS | LLE: EtOaC | TeA | 2 | 8 | [ |
|
||||||
Soya beans | HPLC-UV | Modified QuEChERS, clean-up | AOH | 8 | 24 | [ |
AME | 16 | 48 |
Matrix | Analytical method | Extraction method | Mycotoxins | LOD ( |
LOQ ( |
Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tomato | LC-UV | SLE: CHCL3 | AOH | 1 | 5 | [ |
AME | 0.6 | 2 | ||||
TeA | 2.6 | 11 | ||||
|
||||||
Tomato | LC-MS/MS | SLE: MeOH, derivatization, SPE Strata-XL | ALT | 10–20 | 20–50 | [ |
AOH | 2 | 5 | ||||
TEN | 1 | 2.5–5 | ||||
TeA | 10 | 20 | ||||
AME | 0.3–1 | 1-2 | ||||
|
||||||
Tomato | HPLC-DAD | SLE: acidified ACN, clean-up | AOH | 3.94 | — | [ |
AME | 0.074 | — | ||||
ALT | 0.34 | — | ||||
|
||||||
Tomato products | HPLC-MS/MS | QuEChERS | TeA | 0.38 | 1.28 | [ |
allo-TeA | 0.29 | 0.97 | ||||
|
||||||
Tomato and tomato products | UPLC-MS/MS | SLE: acidified ACN, clean-up | AOH | 4 | — | [ |
AME | 1 | — | ||||
ALT | 2 | — | ||||
TEN | 2 | — | ||||
TeA | 2 | — | ||||
ATX-I | 2 | — | ||||
|
||||||
Tomato and tomato products | LC-ESI-MS/MS | DLLME: ACN/CHCl3 | AOH | 1.4 | 3.5 | [ |
AME | 1.4 | 3.5 | ||||
TEN | 0.7 | 1.75 | ||||
|
||||||
Tomato and pepper products | HPLC-MS/MS stable isotope dilution assay | QuEChERS | TeA | 0.86 | 2.89 | [ |
|
||||||
Sweet pepper | UPLC-MS/MS | SLE: EtOAc, clean-up | AOH | 3.3 | 6.6 | [ |
AME | 12 | 25 | ||||
ALT | 0.6 | 1.2 | ||||
|
||||||
Sweet pepper | LC-UV | SLE: CHCL3 | AME | 1.1 | — | [ |
AOH | 2.9 | — | ||||
TeA | 2.8 | — | ||||
|
||||||
Sunflower seeds | LC–MS | SLE: MeOH | AOH and AME | 1.25 | — | [ |
|
||||||
Tea and herbal infusions | UPLC-MS/MS | LLE: EtOAc/FA, NH2-SPE, C18-SPE | AOH | 5.8–13 | 12–26 | [ |
AME | 20–30 | 41–60 | ||||
ALT | 1.3–2.1 | 2.6–4.1 | ||||
|
||||||
Maca, soy isoflavones, garlic, black radish, St. John’s wort, and ginkgo biloba | UPLC-MS/MS | SLE: EtOAc, clean-up | AOH | 8 | 25 | [ |
AME | 30 | 100 | ||||
ALT | 2 | 6 | ||||
|
||||||
Apple | HPLC-DAD | Microscale extraction | AOH, AME, TEN | 20 | 50 | [ |
|
||||||
Apple juice and wine | HPLC-UV | CCC: EtOAc/H2O | 0.04 | — | [ | |
AME | 0.03 | — | ||||
TeA | 0.14 | — | ||||
|
||||||
Apple juice concentrate | UPLC-MS/ MS | Dilution-analysis | AOH, AME, ALT and TEN | — | 1.0–5.0 | [ |
|
||||||
Strawberries | HPLC-MS/MS | SLE: EtOAc | AOH | 0.75 | 1.75 | [ |
AME | 2 | 3.5 | ||||
TEN | 0.25 | 0.75 | ||||
|
||||||
Blueberries | HPLC-UV | SLE: EtOAc/FA | AOH | 6 | 10 | [ |
AME | 2 | 4 | ||||
|
||||||
Berries and field samples | HPLC-MS/MS | SLE: ACN | ATX-I | — | — | [ |
ALT | — | — | ||||
TeA | — | — | ||||
|
||||||
Pomegranate fruits and juices | HPLC–DAD | QuEChERS | AOH | 15 | 50 | [ |
AME | 15 | 50 | ||||
TEN | 20 | 66 | ||||
|
||||||
Wine, fruit juices | HPLC-DAD | Direct injection or SPE, clean-up | AOH | 2.0–6.0 | 3.3–10 | [ |
AME | 0.1–2.0 | 2–3.1 | ||||
|
||||||
Wine (red, white, and rosé), cider (white and rosé), and their cork stoppers | LC-ESI-MS/MS | Dilution (ACN)-filtration | AOH | — | 0.6–5.0 | [ |
AME | — | 0.2–2.2 | ||||
|
||||||
Tomato products and apple | enzyme immunoassay | Dilution-centrifugation-analysis | AOH | 1-2 | — | [ |
|
||||||
Tomato products and apple | enzyme immunoassay | Dilution-centrifugation-analysis | TeA | 25–150 | — | [ |
|
||||||
Tomato- and citrus-based foods | UPLC-ESI-MS/MS | SLE: ACN, SPE clean-up | TeA | 1 | 4-5 | [ |
AOH | 5-6 | 15–20 | ||||
TEN | 0.5–0.7 | 2 | ||||
AME | 0.1 | 0.3–0.5 | ||||
|
||||||
Tomato products, fruit, and vegetable juices | UPLC-MS/MS | QuEChERS | AOH | 3.0–18.3 | 1.1–5.7 |
[ |
AME | ||||||
ALT | ||||||
TeA | ||||||
TEN | ||||||
ATX I | ||||||
AOH3S | ||||||
AOH3G | ||||||
AME3S | ||||||
AME3G | ||||||
|
||||||
Tomato, apple, sweet cherry, and orange fruits | UPLC-MS/MS | SLE: ACN (NaCl)-SPE (MCX and NH2) | AOH | — | 1 | [ |
AME | — | 1 | ||||
TeA | — | 1 | ||||
ALT | — | 1 | ||||
TEN | — | 1 | ||||
|
||||||
Tomatoes, tomato products, bell peppers, onions, and soft red fruits | LC-TOF-MS | SLE: ACN/EtOAc | AOH | 7.4–17.4 | 14.8–34.8 | [ |
AME | 4.7–90 | 9.4–180 | ||||
|
||||||
Nuts | UPLC-MS/MS | SLE: ACN/H2O/AA (79 : 20 : 1, v/v/v) | AOH | — | 3 | [ |
AME | — | 2.9 | ||||
ATX-I | — | 14 | ||||
TEN | — | 1.2 | ||||
|
||||||
Vegetable juices, fruit juices, and wine | HPLC–MS/MS | SPE | AOH | — | 0.5–0.6 | [ |
AME | — | 0.4–0.5 | ||||
ALT/iso-ALT | — | 2.2–3.1 | ||||
TeA | — | 0.9–1 | ||||
TEN | — | 0.9–1 | ||||
ATX-I | — | 0.8–1 | ||||
ATX-II | — | 1.2–1.3 | ||||
AA-III | — | 1–1.1 | ||||
AALs | — | 1.4–1.9 | ||||
AS | — | 0.8 |
Matrix | Analytical method | Extraction method | Mycotoxins | LOD ( |
LOQ ( |
Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fruit juices and spices and cereals | HPLC-MS/MS by stable isotope dilution assay | Derivatization, clean-up | TeA | 0.15–17 | 0.5–50 | [ |
|
||||||
Tomato, blueberry, walnut, and wheat | Semiquantitative UPLC-HRMS | Microscale extraction | AOH, AME, TEN, ATX, ALT, TeA, ALN, AIA, PyA | — | — | [ |
|
||||||
Tomato, wheat, juice, and sunflower seeds | LC-MS/MS | SLE: MeOH, derivatization for TeA. SPE clean-up | AOH | — | 10 | [ |
AME | — | 1–10 | ||||
ALT | — | 10 | ||||
TEN | — | 1–5 | ||||
TeA | — | 5 | ||||
|
||||||
Tomato products, bakery products, sunflower seeds, fruit juices, and vegetable oils | HPLC-MS/MS | ACN/H2O/FA. Dilute-and-shoot | AOH | 0.2–2.8 | 0.6–9.3 | [ |
AME | 0.04–0.4 | 0.1–1.2 | ||||
TeA | 3.6–34 | 12–110 | ||||
ALT | 0.8–24 | 2.5–81 | ||||
isoALT | 1.3–19 | 4.4–62 | ||||
TEN | 0.1–2.0 | 0.5–6.6 | ||||
ATX-I | 2.1–14 | 6.9–48 | ||||
AAL TA1 | 2.8–5.4 | 9.3–18 | ||||
AAL TA2 | 1.2–17 | 3.8–55 | ||||
|
||||||
Beers, tomato products, apple juices, olive, and dried basil | LC/APCI-MS/MS | SPE | AOH | 620–8080 | 2080–29920 | [ |
AME | 160–1380 | 540–4600 | ||||
ALT | 2220–12310 | 7400–41000 | ||||
TEN | 200–4140 | 680–13700 | ||||
TeA | 1220–7120 | 4060–23730 | ||||
|
||||||
Wine, apples, apple juices, tomatoes, tomato sauces, citrus, dried figs, olives, sunflower seeds, and cereals | UPLC Xevo-TQ-S MS | SLE: ACN-(MgSO4) | ALT | — | 1.5–2 | [ |
SLE: ACN/H2O/FA | AME | — | 1-2 | |||
AOH | — | 2 | ||||
TEN | — | 2–2.5 | ||||
TeA | — | 5 | ||||
|
||||||
Bread, cereals, chips, juice, nuts, oil, sauce, seeds, and spice | LC-MS/MS | SLE: ACN/H2O-(-hexane)-SPE |
TEN | 0.18–0.99 | 0.54–2.94 | [ |
DH-TEN | 0.19–0.35 | 0.62–1.05 | ||||
isoTEN | 0.10–0.45 | 0.33–1.32 |
In the lasts years different food matrices were analyzed for the presence of
Among all of the analyzed matrices, tomato, followed by cereals and fruits, especially apples and berries, were the most studied foodstuff in recent years for
Consequently,
The maximum concentrations of
Moreover, it was observed that the cooccurrence of
Among the 58 studies included in Table
Slight differences were observed based on the analyzed food matrices. Thus, AOH and AME (both 86%) were the most analyzed ones in cereals and cereal by-products, followed by TEN and TeA (59 and 41%, resp.). Other mycotoxins studied in these matrices were ALN (27%), macrosporin (23%), ALT (14%), and less extent monocerin and infectopyrone (both 5%). The same trend was observed in fruits, vegetables, and derived products, with predominance of AOH and AME (both 79%), followed by TEN (41%), TeA (38%), ALT (34%), and ATXs (14%).
In the last years, several food matrices were analyzed for the presence of
With regard to the widespread occurrence of
Although there are no specific international regulations for any of the
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
This research was supported by the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness of Spain (Grant no. AGL2013-43194-P). Laura Escrivá is grateful for the Ph.D. grant provided by the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness of Spain (Grant no. BES-2014-068039).