Diversity, Uses, and Threats in the Ghodaghodi Lake Complex, a Ramsar Site in Western Lowland Nepal

Thi study documents aquatic and terrestrial/riparian biodiversity in an anthropogenically disturbed Ramsar site, the Ghodaghodi Lake complex, in the Western Nepal surveyed during the summer season (March-April) of 2007. Th study site comprises three major interconnected lakes: Ghodaghodi (138 ha), Nakharodi (70 ha), and Bainshwa (10 ha). Five transect lines for aquatic macrophytes and three transect lines and 37 sampling plots were laid to sample terrestrial/riparian plants, birds, and animals. Five sample plots were established for fish and aquatic bird. A total of 45 species of aquatic macrophytes, 54 species of terrestrial/riparian vegetation, 19 fish species, 41 bird species, 17 mammals (endangered and vulnerable), and 5 reptiles (critically endangered, vulnerable, and near threatened) were recorded at the lake complex. Local people have used most of the aquatic and terrestrial plants for different purposes while many of the potential medicinal plant species were still untapped. Persistent anthropogenic threats, like excessive harvesting and poaching, habitat destruction—population pressure, forest fragmentation, siltation, fertilizer and pesticide seepage, water pollution, overgrazing, and unmanaged irrigation system found over the lake complex, endangered the existing biodiversity. Th suggested remedial measures are further exploration of medicinal potential, prioritization of in situ biodiversity conservation strategies, and implementation of awareness program at local level against anthropogenic threats.


Introduction
Wetlands are defined as lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water [1] and as in such state, supports considerable amount of biological diversity of the earth.Th values of wetlands are receiving global attention due to their high contribution to human kind.But it is also a most delicate and threatened habitat as compared to other types because of the close interaction with us.Wetlands occupy approximately 5% (743,756 ha) of the total area of Nepal including high altitude glacial lakes, hot springs, ponds, oxbow lakes, river fl od plains, swamps, and marshes and are critical habitats for many plant and animal species.MFSC [2] mentioned that the biogeographic location of Nepal and its complex mountain systems have given rise to a proportionately high level of biodiversity relative to its total area (i.e., 147,181sq.km).Dugan [3] reported that wetlands occupy only about 4 to 6% of the Earth's surface but provide habitat for about 20% of the world's species.Although Nepal represents only 0.1%of the global terrestrial surface, it houses 0.3% of the world's species including 4.5% of the mammalian species, 4.2% of the butterfly species, 2.7% of the flowering plant species, 2.2% of the freshwater fish species, 1.6% of the reptile species, and 1% of the amphibian species [2]. A. R. Joshi and D. P. Joshi [4] reported that 25% of Nepal's estimated 7,000 vascular plant species are wholly or partially wetland dependent.Th ugh wetlands form only 5% of Nepal's area, a total of 193 bird species (22% of the total recorded in the country) fully depend on it [5].Of the 35 globally threatened species recorded in Nepal, 15 (43%) are wetland birds.In addition a total of 12 (50%) out of 24 near-threatened species inhabit wetlands [6].According to IUCN [7], there are 10species of amphibians, 1reptile species, and 8 species of flowering plants endemic to Nepal's wetlands.

ISRN Biodiversity
Medicinal plants have contributed signific ntly to the livelihood of Nepalese people [8] and their use is prevalent in different parts of the country [9,10].In Nepal, traditional use of plant resources for medicinal purpose has a long history and is gaining popularity due to a lack of side effects, easy availability at affor able prices; and in many circumstances, it is the only source of health care to the poor communities [11].Around 6,500 plant species are used for medicinal purposes in Asia [12] while at least 1,600 to 1,900 plant species are used traditionally for medicinal practices in Nepal [13,14].Th government has also recognized the importance of proper conservation of medicinal plant diversity and the issue is highlighted in the national level Nepal Biodiversity Strategy [2].It is estimated that only 15-20% of the population of Nepal, who live in and around urban areas, have access to modern medicinal facilities, whereas the rest depend on traditional medicines [8].
Biodiversity loss has become a major issue over the last few decades and its protection has emerged as a main agenda within national nature conservation policies, international conventions, conservation targets, and political programmes [15].Freshwater biodiversity has been threatened by a number of major impacts such as overexploitation, water pollution, and fl w modific tion including water abstraction, destruction, or degradation of habitat as well as invasion by alien species [16].Th diversity and distribution of wetland flora and fauna are aff cted by the changes in the water chemistry [17].Schuyt [18] reported various threats to the major wetlands of Africa: reclamation for agriculture and settlement expansion at Nakivubo wetland, Uganda; reduction of water level by overabstraction within catchment and degradation of the catchment itself due to overpopulation, overexploitation of wetland resource, soil erosion and siltation, pollution from the use of agrochemicals, and invasion by water hyacinth at Lake Chilwa wetland, Malawi; reduced water flow by overabstraction, aquatic weed infestation, overuse of wetland resource, pollution, and deforestation at Zambezi Basin wetland, South Africa.Five threats have been documented by Dudgeon et al. [19] including overexploitation of the natural resources, water pollution from the siltation and agricultural wastes, flow modific tion, habitat degradation, and exotic species invasion, whose combined and interactive influences are the causes of declining populations and shrinking global freshwater biodiversity and could be compared with the existing condition of Ghodaghodi Lake complex.Siwakoti and Karki [20] highlighted the heavy dependency of the poor people on wetlands as a major issue for wetland conservation in Nepal.The authors were of the view that the involvement of wetland-dependent communities in the decision-making process could assist sustainable resource conservation eff rts and help them benefit in lieu of conservation.Th effective systems of resource management can ensure that biological resources not only survive, but increase as well while they are being used by the people, thus providing the foundation for sustainable development [21].Protection of freshwater biodiversity is perhaps the ultimate conservation challenge in the current global scenario [19].Since wetlands are considered as a common property resource, the conservation of this ecosystem is an uphill task unless the principal stakeholders are involved in the process.
Ghodaghodi Lake complex is the largest interconnected natural lake system in the plain land of Nepal and was designated a Ramsar site in 2003 due to its high biodiversity value.Th ugh it is a very important lake ecosystem, only a few studies [7,22] are found on the biodiversity and threats, while medicinal uses of plant species are hardly tapped by the scientific research.IUCN [7] carried out a full inventory of the Lake Complex spread over six months (Nov.-May,1997/98) while Kafle [22] studied certain lake diversity focussing only on Ghodaghodi Lake in summer (Jan.-Feb.)and winter (Sept.-Oct.) of 2005.Thi study investigates the terrestrial/riparian and aquatic biodiversity of the lake complex, existing and potential utility including the medicinal values of the plant species, while at the same time identifie the anthropogenic threats to the lake biodiversity.The results of this research are intended to inform managers and decision makers about the importance of this lake ecosystem and how planning decisions could impact the lake's biodiversity.
Th lake system is connected with extensive forests along the Siwalik (Churia) Hills to the north and falls between two of Terai's protected areas-the Royal Bardia National Park and the Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve-and functions as an important corridor for the movement of wildlife.Th lake complex is characterised by three types of wetland habitats: (i) riverine including perennial rivers and river fl od plain; (ii) lacustrine including oxbow lakes and ponds; and (iii) palustrine including marshes and swamps.Marshy areas on the fringes of the lakes are subject to periodic inundation.Only Ghodaghodi and Nakharodi Lakes are perennial while Bainshwa is seasonal and turns marshy during the dry season.Similarly, the wetland forest complex has three types of forest habitats: Shorea robusta forest, Terminalia alata forest, and mixed deciduous riverine forest.
Th area has a tropical monsoon climate.The average annual rainfall ranges between 1630 mm (recorded at Tikapur, 35 km to the southeast of the lake) and 1705 mm (recorded at Dhangadhi) where about 80-85% of total rainfall occurs during the monsoon period (mid-June to late September).The average monthly maximum temperature ranges from 21 ∘ C to 38 ∘ C and minimum 6 ∘ C to 25 ∘ C (at Tikapur).At Dhangadhi, the maximum temperature ranges from 22 ∘ C to 37 ∘ C and minimum from 5 ∘ C to 25 ∘ C. Th soil at the bed and surrounding area of the lake complex was almost of the same type with very little horizontal spatial variation.Th predominant soil type was high in plasticity, of low permeability clay of yellowish to light brown colour.Low permeability of the soil was on the basis that loss of water through seepage and deep percolation seemed to be considerably low.No rock outcrop could be seen in the vicinity of the lake area.The lake is fed by direct precipitation during the monsoon season and by surface flows from the watershed area, ground water springs, and small streams.Water depth varies from 1-2 m during the dry period to 3-4 m during the monsoon season [23].
Th wetland complex is bordered by three local politicoadministrative units called Village Development Committees (VDC): Sandepani in the East, Darakh in the South, and Ramshikharjhala in the North and West.Around 60% of the total area is used as agricultural land, 37% land is under forest covers, lakes, common pastures, and scrubs; 2% percent under settlements and roads while rivers and streams cover 1% percent of the total land.Farming with traditional use of natural resources is the major occupation of the people living in the lake area.Th present uses of lake resources include fishing, livestock grazing and collection of fodder, fi ewood, and nontimber forest products including medicinal plants.Tharus, an indigenous ethnic group of the lake area, comprising more than 50% of the total population, are the most dependent community on wetland resources [20].Th uses of lake resources by local people, mainly fodder, aquatic macrophytes, livestock grazing, and fishing, were also mentioned by [24].Th total households and population of these VDCs have been increased sharply (73% and 38%, resp.) in the last decade as shown in the Table 1.

Data Collection.
Data were collected during March-April 2007.Therefore the species documented in this study can only be validated in the summer months of Nepal.Data on both terrestrial/riparian and aquatic plants were recorded in the fl ral category.For aquatic plants, submerged, free-fl ating, fl ating leaves, and emergent plants were collected.Sampling was undertaken in such a way that it would cover all the representative habitats of aquatic flora.Shorelines as well as open water areas, floating as well as submerged vegetations were sampled across the lake in transect lines in a boat.Five transect lines, three at Ghodaghodi (719 m, 1673 m, and 1572 m), one at Bainshwa (460 m), and one at Nakharodi (960 m), were established; and quadrat method of random sampling as mentioned by Ludwig and Reynolds [27] was followed to collect macrophytes.Local people and secondary literature [28][29][30][31] were consulted for field identific tion of aquatic macrophytes.For terrestrial plants, trees, shrubs and herbs were surveyed.Three transect lines, each from eastern, western, and northern parts, passing through the surrounding forest of Ghodaghodi Lake complex, were demarcated.A total of 37 quadrat plots, also used by Dongol [32], of 10 m × 10m were laid on the ground at intervals of 250 m along those transect lines in an alternate side.Similarly, nested plots of 3 m × 3 m and 1m × 1m on the lower right-hand side corner were laid within the 10 m × 10 m plot for shrub and herb inventory, respectively.
Field identific tion of the plant species was carried out using standard literature [30,[33][34][35] and with the help of local people.Herbaria were prepared for unidentifi d plant samples and brought to the Kathmandu University Laboratory for expert identific tion.Unidentifi d species were also taken to the Government accredited National Herbarium Centre at Godavari, Lalitpur.
In the faunal category, the survey was undertaken for fishes birds, mammals, and reptiles.For fish, five sampling areas were purposively identifi d, three in Ghodaghodi Lake and two in Bainshwa and Nakharodi.Fishing nets were kept overnight and the fish catch was collected next morning and repeated for three consecutive days.We followed Shrestha [36] for fis specimen identific tion.Local fish markets located at Sukhad Bazar were surveyed twice in three-day intervals to identify additional species harvested from the lake.
For terrestrial birds, the same plots of terrestrial vegetation assessment were considered.Bird surveys were carried out before vegetation surveys in the morning from 0500 hr to 0700 hr through direct observation via binoculars (8 × 30) and a call count method.Birds were surveyed for a total of fiv consecutive days.For aquatic birds, the same sampling points used for fish were considered.The survey procedure and period were similar to those of terrestrial birds and in both cases, we followed the literature of BCN and DNPWC [37] for fiel identific tion.Th same stations were used for the survey of aquatic animals.
For terrestrial wildlife, the transect lines setup for terrestrial plant assessments was used.Each transect was walked three times and wildlife species were observed.This survey was carried out before vegetation surveys so that habitats could remain undisturbed and animals could be spotted.Indirect methods such as faecal, hair, and horns were also used to determine the presence of wildlife species.
Anthropogenic threats as well as additional information on exiting biodiversity and local medicinal uses of plant species were observed and recorded through field observations, focus group discussions (FGDs), and key informant interviews (KII).A total of three focus group discussions, one at each VDC and six key informant interviews, two at each VDC, were conducted.Field observations were made using a recording sheet and camera while a checklist containing all aspects of biodiversity, medicinal uses, and existing threats was developed, pretested, and used for the FGD.A total of 8-10 people including ethnic traditional healers were made available for FGD in order to gather information, crosscheck, and validate.Older members of the community and local schoolteachers were selected for key informant interviews.2) were found in the Ghodaghodi, Bainshwa, and Nakharodi Lakes.Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), water chestnut (Trapa bispinosa), water lilies (Nymphaea nouchali), and pondweed (Potamogeton natans) were the major anchored leaf-fl ating species.Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata), hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum), and pondweeds (Potamogeton spp.) were the major submerged species.Similarly, feathered mosquito fern (Azolla imbricate), duck weed (Lemna minor), and Asian watermeal (Wolffia globosa) were found to be the dominant free-floating species.An inventory of the Ghodaghodi Lake by IUCN [7] resulted in 107 species of aquatic macrophytes, whereas a seasonal study by Kafle [22] reported only 22 aquatic plant species.A total of seven categories of existing uses were found from the lake aquatic macrophytes.Out of the 45 plant species identified in the wetland complex, 22 species have been used for different purposes, such as human medicines (11species), fodder (7 species), food (6 species), green manure (8 species), food for fish (5 species), food for duck (5 species), and industrial (2 species).There were still 23 macrophytes species untapped for any uses including medicines, though used in other parts of the country as well as South Asia.

Terrestrial/Riparian Plant Diversity.
A total of 54 terrestrial/riparian plant species (Table 3) were found, out of which 25 were trees, 7 shrubs, and 22 herbs.Shorea robusta and Terminalia alata were the major terrestrial tree species.Other species include Syzygium cumini, Aegle marmelos, Acacia catechu, and Dalbergia latifolia.The forest also contained lianas and undergrowth, and the secondary layer was formed by a variety of trees including Mallotus philippensis.A rare spiny shrub Gardenia campanulata, with highly restricted distribution within Nepal, was also found.Syzygium cumini and Syzygium jumbos were the dominant species of swamp forest, particularly around Nakharodi Lake.However, a total of 137 and 35 terrestrial/riparian plant species were identifi d by IUCN [7] and Kafl [22], respectively, at Ghodaghodi Lake.Local people in Ghodaghodi Lake complex traditionally use Ta ble 2: Aquatic macrophytes recorded in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex.

Species
Potential uses Existing uses by local people in the Ghodaghodi Lake area Submerged

Sonchus asper Human medicine [55] N O N E Typha angustifolia
Food [42]; fodder [42]; industrial [39,42] N O N E Note.Human and veterinary medicine includes the uses of a plant in different ailments by local people in the study area as well as in other parts of South Asia.Food includes vegetables, pickle, and spices consumed by human.Industrial includes use of a plant for handicraft, oils and tannin, and others that can provide direct cash benefit.N/A: information could not be found in the scientifi literature by authors.NONE: no use of a plant in the study area so far.
several terrestrial/riparian plant species to sustain their livelihood.A total of eight categories of existing uses were found from the lake terrestrial plant resources.Out of the 54 plant species identified in the wetland complex, 35 species have been used for different purposes, such as human medicines (29 species), veterinary medicine (5 species), fodder (13 species), fruit (8 species), timber (7 species), fi ewood (6 species), industrial (4 species), and food (3 species).A total of 19 species were still untapped in the study area though they have been found to be used for different purposes including medicine in other parts of the country as well as South Asia.

Fish Diversity.
A total of 19 fish species were found in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex (Table 4).IUCN [7] identifi d 27 species of fish from the same area.

Avifaunal Diversity.
Wetland birds comprise a signifi cant portion of the avian fauna recorded in Nepal [71].Thi study found a total of 41 species of birds representing 20 families in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex (Table 5).IUCN [7] documented 140 species of avifauna whereas Kafl [22] reported 60 species.Th lower number of bird species in our study compared to others may be because of seasonal effects; that is, IUCN inventory was for six months and Kafl has documented avifauna seen in two seasons.

Mammalian Diversity.
A total of 17 species of mammals belonging to 12 families were recorded in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex (Table 6).These included endangered species like fishi g cat (Felis viverrina) and Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), while the common otter (Lutra lutra), leopard cat (Felis bengalensis), leopard (Panthera pardus), blue bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus), and spotted deer (Axix axix) fall under the vulnerable category.IUCN [7] reported 34 mammalian species from the same complex.Some of the mammals such as jungle hare, spotted deer, and wild boar are used by the local people for bush meat.

Reptile Diversity.
Thi study found a total of 6 species of reptiles representing 5 families in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex (Table 7).It also showed the existence of the vulnerable marsh mugger (Crocodylus palustris) in different parts of the Ghodaghodi Lake.It was informed by the local people that marsh mugger often travels near Bainshwa Lake by crossing a small ridge that separates these two lakes.Similarly, the critical endangered red crowned roofed turtle (Kachuga kachuga) and near-threatened Indian python (Python molurus) were also found to exist in the lake.Ghodaghodi Lake supports the habitat for additional species of turtles including flap-shell turtle (Lissemys punctata) and Indian roofed turtle (Kachuga tecta).

Potential Anthropogenic
Threats to Ghodaghodi Lake Complex Biodiversity.Freshwater ecosystems are aff cted by overharvesting of the resources and habitat destruction.The major drivers of the destruction are human demography, excessive resource use, increased water consumption, technological development, and social organization [74].The e changes are responsible for some major alteration like physical restructuring of aquatic ecosystems, introduction of exotic species, discharge of toxic substances, and overharvesting of resources [75].Bhandari [76] observed conversion of wetland because of overexploitation of resources, pollution of water, invasion of alien species, encroachment to the lake area, and sedimentation as the major categories of threats in Nepal.The Ghodaghodi Lake complex supports several aquatic and terrestrial fl ra and fauna, contributing to wetland biodiversity conservation in the area.However, as other wetlands, Ghodaghodi Lake complex is no exception, receiving threat from unsustainable harvesting and illegal poaching, expanding population, changes in land use, and overexploitation of lake resources.Most of these threats we observed are anthropogenic in nature and can be broadly categorized into (i) unsustainable harvesting and poaching and (ii) habitat destruction.

Unsustainable Harvesting and Poaching.
Local people heavily harvested aquatic and terrestrial plants and fishes.
Illegal tree felling and smuggling of Shorea robusta timber

Ficus racemosa
Fodder [54]; fruit [54] Fodder Ta ble 4: Fishes recorded in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex.and Acacia catechu were common practices found during the study period.Human encroachments were severe in the southeastern parts of Nakharodi Lake; and eastern, southeastern, and northwestern parts of Ghodaghodi Lake.Siwakoti and Karki [20] mentioned illegal cutting and encroachment at the lake area.Mammals and birds suffer from poaching by local people as well as illegal hunters from other areas of the country.It has been reported that local poachers have always been active for killing wild animals in the lake area.Illegal hunting of wild boars, deer, and other wildlife as well as bird trapping and egg collection were prevalent in the area, either by the villagers or professional poachers.Neupane et al. [77] reported similar threats of poaching and illegal hunting of small mammals, fish, and birds at wetlands located in the far Western Nepal.

Habitat Destruction.
Habitat destruction affects both harvested species such as aquatic plants and fishe and even nonharvested species of weeds, reptiles, and microorganisms.Large mammals like tiger, sloth bear, and most of the deer species were not sighted in the area for a couple of years.Th current population pressure in the area and fragmentation of the forest and increased agricultural land have been identified as factors contributing to this degradation.The local people attributed this to the shrinkage and thinning of forest areas for the establishment of settlements around the lake that have heavily degraded the habitat of these mammals.The other drivers of habitat destruction in the Ta ble 5: Avifauna recorded in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex.lake complex include rites and rituals, unmanaged irrigation systems for agricultural fields runoff from agricultural fields and siltation, and overgrazing.Th wastes generated from the rites and rituals performed by the religious pilgrims, especially indigenous Tharu community, on the shore of the lake, have contributed signifi cantly to water pollution in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex.Th y celebrate by sacrifici g domestic pigs, goats, chickens, and pigeons on the shore, which ultimately becomes a source of pollution.A few past studies [20,22,77] also documented cultural and religious activities as a major source of pollution.Recreational activities in the form of picnicking are a common practice inside the complex.Th movement of people and the loud music system played for such recreation negatively impact the faunal species including birds.During the last two decades, land use of the complex has changed due to the encroachment of migrants from the hilly districts of far western region.Forest area has decreased at the expense of agricultural land while forest cover has been converted into open grazing land, displacing the habitat of important birds and wildlife.

ISRN Biodiversity
Water extraction for irrigation and water use for buffalo wallowing has severely affected the habitat.This study observed both Ghodaghodi and Nakharodi Lakes having a canal used for irrigation purposes, a practice that becomes even more intense during dry periods.Landowners and farmers downstream from the lake have a vested interest to secure water for irrigation.The lake complex does not have a permanent perennial source of water and this extraction system, especially in the dry season, greatly aff cts the aquatic life and migratory birds.
Th southeastern part of Ghodaghodi Lake and eastern parts of Nakharodi Lake have been heavily affected by livestock grazing.As the occupation of most of the villagers used to be farming as well as rearing livestock, grazing the forests and open grasslands of the lake area is common.However, the trampling of soil and browsing of young palatable species from this traditional practice has damaged the regeneration capacity of native vegetation in the area.
Dichlorvos 76% EC and Endosulfan 35% EC were the major pesticides used, while urea and diammonium phosphate (DAP) were the major fertilizers used in crops near the lake vicinity.The seepage of such pesticides and fertilizers through agricultural runoff has caused eutrophication in the lake.As a result, excessive growth of aquatic macrophytes such as Ceratophyllum demersum, Nelumbo nucifera, Naja minor, Pistia stratiotes, and Hydrilla verticillata from the water surface was evident.Siwakoti and Karki [20] reported the occurrence of both the natural and human caused eutrophication at Ghodaghodi Lake complex with the invasion of Ipomea fistulosa and Salix spp.Eutrophication from agricultural runoff and invasion of water hyacinth were also reported by Shrestha [42] at Koshi Tappu wetland.
Siltation emerging from the degradation of upper watershed areas is another reason for habitat destruction.Rapid deforestation and encroachment in the watershed area within Betini forest, a major source of water, is causing reduced water supply to the lake.Overgrazing of the grassland at the watershed has also increased soil erosion and siltation.This findi g is similar to that of [77].In Nepal, nearly 69% of wetlands are threatened by sedimentation and siltation while 61% by agricultural runoff [7].

Conclusion and Recommendation
Thi study, a month long summer season survey, documents the existing biodiversity, the use pattern of floral diversity by the local people, and anthropogenic threats to the overall biodiversity of Ghodaghodi Lake complex.Th Ghodaghodi Lake complex was found to be a very rich wetland diversity hotspot in the western low-land region of Nepal, though variations in the number of species than those of previous study by IUCN [7] and Kafl [22] were recorded.Within such a small territory, the existence of such a vast number of both the floral and faunal diversity is really an encouraging sign for conservation.The lake resources, especially aquatic and terrestrial plants, were traditionally been used for different purposes including medicinal, food, fodder, fruit, fuel wood, timber, and industrial.Among them, medicinal uses were a main priority for the local people because they have been traditionally practiced in the locality and are a good alternative to the health care system.However, the data revealed that most of the plant species were still untouched because of a lack of local knowledge on their potential value and utilization.This shows a scope in the exploration of ethnobotanical knowledge of the plant species in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex.If proper conservation and sustainable utilization is ensured, then the lake resources can have a good economic contribution to the lives of local people.
Th paradox is however the threats in the area, mostly anthropogenic in nature, which could lead to an imbalance of the natural wetland ecosystem.If immediate conservation action is not put in place, then there is a likelihood that most of the threatened category animals will be in danger due to the anthropogenic threats identified by this study.Th results show that Ghodaghodi Lake complex has an enormous economic and conservational potential and care should be taken to maintain its biodiversity value.The economic potential and multipurpose use of plant species, including medicinal values, could supplement the household income of the local people and be a good incentive for them for conservation.We recommend (1) more exploration of the indigenous lake resource uses including medicinal potential of available plant species, (2) prioritizing in situ biodiversity conservation, and (3) implementing awareness programs at local levels on the consequence of threats to lake biodiversity.

Figur e 1 :
Figur e 1:Map showing Ghodaghodi Lake complex and adjoining villages.
Ta bl e 6: Mammals recorded in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex.