The study of the motivation of construction workers is limited to a relatively small body of knowledge. Although there is considerable research available regarding motivation and productivity, few researchers have provided a comprehensive analysis on the motivation of construction workers. The research stated that productivity in construction has not improved compared to other industry sectors such as manufacturing. This trend has been echoed in publications throughout the past five decades, and suggested that motivation is one of the key factors impacting productivity. This paper offers a comprehensive review of the published work that directly links the key words—construction and motivation. The findings have been presented in five themes, that is, motivation models, environment and culture, incentives and empowerment, and worker management. This paper concludes with two methods suggested by previous researchers to improve motivation of construction workers: (1) relevant worker incentives (intrinsic or extrinsic) and (2) improved management practices, specifically regarding communication with workers.
During the past five decades, construction productivity has remained low and has lagged behind other industries [
This paper discusses and reviews in depth analysis on worker motivation in the construction industry. It summarizes information under four main areas, that is, (1) definitions of motivation, (2) theories of motivation, and (3) motivational themes in construction. The motivational themes in construction were further discussed under motivational models, work environment/culture, incentives and empowerment, and worker management.
A literature review was initiated to collect peer-reviewed English articles from the last four decades regarding worker motivation in construction. The literature selected originated from peer-reviewed articles from the following journals and conference proceedings: (1) Building and Environment; (2) Cost Engineering; (3) 5th Post Graduate Conference on Construction Industry Development; (4) Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering; (5) Engineering Management Journal; (6) International Journal of Project Management; (7) Journal of Construction Engineering and Management; (8) Journal of Engineering, Design, and Technology; (9) Journal of Geospatial Engineering; (10) Journal of Labor Economics; (11) Journal of Management in Engineering; (12) Leadership and Management in Engineering; (13) Applied Mechanics and Materials (14) Project Management Journal; and (15) Journal of the Construction Division. Additionally, two of the articles are the result of theses.
Literature was chosen based upon its relevance to chosen key words: motivation and construction. The titles and abstracts of the articles were scanned for the keywords. Altogether, 56 articles were found; 22 articles were separated since those did not directly link motivation and construction. The remaining 34 articles were on worker motivation within the context of construction. These articles were then further analyzed under motivational themes and were separated into four major categories: (1) motivation models; (2) environment and culture; (3) incentives and empowerment; and (4) worker management. Each of these categories was defined and discussed in this paper. Table
Summary of the literature review according to relevance/classification.
Theme | Total |
---|---|
Motivation model | 9 |
Environment and culture | 7 |
Incentive and empowerment | 9 |
Worker management | 9 |
|
|
Total | 34 |
Motivation has been defined as “providing a drive to act to satisfy needs or desires” [
Theories of motivation are not discussed in detail, in this paper, as such information is already available in the literature. Hewage [ Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory [ Herzberg motivational theory [ Adams’ equity theory [ Vroom’s expectancy theory [ Reinforcement theory [ Alderfer’s ERG theory [
As mentioned, literature review found thirty five articles directly related to worker motivation within construction context. Table
Literature review results: motivation of workers in construction.
Number | Journal |
Writer(s) | Relevance/classification | Field/application |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | JCEM |
Maloney and McFillen [ |
Worker environment/culture | Job structure to motivate workers |
2 | CME | Smithers and Walker [ |
Worker environment/culture | Creating an attractive workplace environment |
3 | JCEM | Abdelhamid and Everett [ |
Worker environment/culture | Reducing fatigue |
4 | CJCE | Hewage and Ruwanpura [ |
Worker environment/culture | Inadequacy of communication, incentives, and work conditions |
5 | JCEM |
Nepal et al. [ |
Worker environment/culture | Worker expectations, basic needs, and goal setting |
6 | JCEM | Brockman [ |
Worker environment/culture | Interpersonal conflicts in construction environment |
7 | AMM | Ou [ |
Worker environment/culture | Cultivating hygiene factors in construction projects |
8 | JCD | Borcherding [ |
Incentive and empowerment | Feeling accomplishment/impact |
9 | JCEM |
Maloney and McFillen [ |
Incentive and empowerment | Discipline versus reward |
10 | JGE |
Lam and Tang [ |
Incentive and empowerment | Short-term and long-term motivation schemes |
11 | LME | Price et al. [ |
Incentive and empowerment | Incentives and physical/basic needs |
12 | JCEM | Cox et al. [ |
Incentive and empowerment | Workforce needs: praise |
13 | EMJ | Doloi [ |
Incentive and empowerment | Motivational factor survey |
14 | CID |
Thwala Monese [ |
Incentive and empowerment | Motivational drivers |
15 | JEDT |
Chileshe and Haupt [ |
Incentive and empowerment | Motivational factors |
16 | IJPM | Dwivedula and Bredillet [ |
Incentive and empowerment/motivational model | Influencing motivation |
17 | JCEM | Maloney [ |
Motivation model | Need for model |
18 | JCEM | Maloney and McFillen [ |
Motivation model | Research needs |
19 | JCEM | Maloney [ |
Motivation model | Positive/negative factors that influence motivation |
20 | JCEM | Maloney and McFillen [ |
Motivation model | Link employee and employer goals |
21 | JCEM | Maloney [ |
Motivation model | Causes and how motivation is channeled |
22 | BE | Olomolaiye and Price [ |
Motivation model | Application and modeling |
23 | JCEM | Maloney [ |
Motivation model | Motivation influences performance |
24 | JCEM | Thomas et al. [ |
Motivation model | Motivation theory |
25 | Thesis | Hewage [ |
Motivational model | Communication to workers |
26 | JCD | Hazeltine [ |
Worker management | Discover, learn, and apply motivational basics |
27 | JCEM |
Maloney and McFillen [ |
Worker management | Areas of influence that motivate |
28 | PICE |
Mansfield and Odeh [ |
Worker management | Principles to follow based on two decades of review |
29 | Thesis |
Gonzalez [ |
Worker management | Motivation programs |
30 | IJPM | Mansfield and Odeh [ |
Worker management | Key areas managers must pay attention to, to motivate |
31 | JME | Rojas and Aramvareekul [ |
Worker management | Improving productivity is a management issue |
32 | JCEM | Cox et al. [ |
Worker management | KBI-Key behavioral indicators usage |
33 | IJPM | Tabassi and Bakar [ |
Worker management | Training, motivation, and performance |
34 | IJPM | Tabassi et al. [ |
Worker management | Training and motivation on teamwork |
BE = Building and Environment; CE = Cost Engineering; CID = 5th Post Graduate Conference on Construction Industry Development; CJCE = Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering; EMJ = Engineering Management Journal; IJPM = International Journal of Project Management; JCEM = Journal of Construction Engineering and Management; JCD = Journal of the Construction Division; JEDT = Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology; JGE = Journal of Geospatial Engineering; JLE = Journal of Labor Economics; JME = Journal of Management in Engineering; LME = Leadership and Management in Engineering; AMM = Applied Mechanics and Materials; PICE = Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers; PMJ = Project Management Journal.
Motivational models provide an arrangement and structure for developing, communicating, and managing worker motivation. The following paragraphs discuss some of the motivational models available in the literature.
In 1968, Porter and Lawler developed a motivational model based on Vroom’s expectancy model. Porter and Lawler developed a motivational model considering interrelated variables. The variables considered in Porter and Lawler’s model included a motivational force predictor comprised on effort reward expectancies and reward prediction, job effort and performance, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, and job satisfaction [
Maloney [
Vroom’s expectancy model of motivation.
Maloney and McFillen [
Olomolaiye and Price [
Thomas [
The expectancy theory model for motivation introduced by Hewage and Ruwanpura [
Hewage’s expectancy theory of motivation [
Hewage’s [
Prioritized motivational factors (data obtained from Hewage [
Motivational factors | Applicable theory | |
---|---|---|
1 | Bonus or rewards | ET, HT, RT |
2 | Amount of salary | ET, EQT, RT |
3 | Friendliness and helpfulness of the coworkers | ET, HT, MT, AT |
4 | Amount of freedom in your work | ET, MT, AT |
5 | Chance for getting a promotion | ET, RT, HT |
6 | Chances to learn new things | ET, HT |
7 | Respect receive from the coworkers & supervisors | ET, MT, AT |
8 | Opportunity for challenging work | ET, EQT, HT |
9 | Tools and equipment | ET, EQT |
10 | Chances to accomplish something worth | ET, MT, RT, HT, AT |
11 | Chances to do the things which you do best and like most | ET, RT, HT |
12 | Type of physical surroundings (washrooms, lunch rooms, etc.) | ET, EQT, HT |
13 | Team to work with | ET, MT, EQT, AT |
14 | Supervisor’s understanding of the quality and technical details | ET, EQT, HT |
15 | Supervisor’s direction and support | ET, EQT, HT |
16 | Safety procedures in site | ET, MT, EQT, HT, AT |
17 | Chances to take part in decision making | ET, MT, HT, AT |
18 | Opportunities to develop skills and abilities | ET, HT |
19 | Job security | ET, MT, EQT, HT, AT |
20 | Opportunity to work entire period in site before moving to a new one | ET, EQT, RT |
21 | Seeing the ultimate results of work | ET, MT, HT, AT |
22 | Supervisor’s positive feedback after successfully completing a task | ET, MT, RT, HT, AT |
23 | Holidays and free time (lunch and coffee breaks) during work | ET, RT, HT, EQT |
Where Maslow Theory (MT), Alderfer's Theory (AT), Ex-pectancy Theory (ET), Reinforcement Theory (RT), Equity Theory (EQT), Herzberg's Theory (HT).
According to Hewage and Ruwanpura [
Dwivedula and Bredillet [ (1) Employee development: (a) job advancement; (b) variety of knowledge; (c) participative decision making; (d) high level of knowledge; (e) developing competencies; (f) sense of achievement. (2) Work climate: (a) variety of tasks; (b) social interaction; (c) feedback from work; (d) significant job; (e) communication flow. (3) Perceived equity: (a) adequate pay; (b) adequate recognition; (c) freedom at work; (d) feedback from colleagues. (4) Work objectivity: (a) complete piece of work; (b) clarity of goal. (5) Job security: (a) job security.
The above discussion highlights that motivational models reviewed were developed considering various attributes. Table
Summary of motivational models.
Motivational models | Attributes |
---|---|
Porter and Lawler’s Model [ |
Effort, performance, satisfaction |
Maloney [ |
Efforts, performance, rewards |
Thomas et al. [ |
Job content, incentives, efforts, performance, satisfaction |
Hewage and Ruwanpura [ |
Expectancy, performance, valence |
Cox et al. [ |
Confidence, incentives, quality of work, safety performance, praise, a feeling of being a member, job security |
Dwivedula and Bredillet [ |
Employee development, work climate, perceived equity, work objectivity, and job security |
This section addresses worker motivation in the context of the construction environment and culture. Maloney [
Smithers and Walker [
Hewage and Ruwanpura [
Nepal et al. [
Ou [
Brockman [
This paper defines incentives as any factor, action, position, result, or communication that influences a worker to perform a set task in a desired manner. Borcherding [
Maloney and McFillen [ performance definition; performance facilitation; performance encouragement.
Maloney and McFillen [
Lam and Tang [
Incentives for individual workers are manifested in various forms. One of the primary forms is money, as stated by Cox et al. [
Project attributes ranking (data obtained from Doloi [
Project attributes | Rank |
---|---|
Job security | 1 |
Work appreciation and reward | 2 |
Work environment | 3 |
Employer’s recognition | 4 |
Prospect of promotion | 5 |
Geographical position | 6 |
Contract of employment | 7 |
Incentivized scheme | 8 |
Financial security | 9 |
Obligation to family support | 10 |
Social status | 11 |
Superannuation | 12 |
Dependence | 13 |
Management pressure | 14 |
Marital status | 15 |
Opportunity for advancement | 16 |
Fringe benefit | 17 |
Employer’s profile | 18 |
Gender | 19 |
Challenging occupation | 20 |
Penalty clause | 21 |
Level of education | 22 |
Car | 23 |
Age group | 24 |
Split income | 25 |
These findings represent an important resource for employers in increasing employees output. Thwala and Monese [
One of the prominent themes in construction worker motivation research is the need for construction managers to change their approach on motivating their workforce. Many managers do not understand motivational concepts and therefore lack the appropriate approach to increasing productivity. Hazeltine [
Over a decade later, Maloney and McFillen [
Hancock [ Industry characteristics: short-term employment reduces chances of employee/company identification; construction environments can make performance outcomes unpredictable; unusual problems act as a spur to ingenuity; construction contracts (and their types) have to be matched to project risk situations; labor availability (in short supply) can limit initiatives; management effectiveness can diminish on multicontract and complex projects. Types of individuals: rational-economic man: motivated by economic incentives; social man: motivated by social needs and interaction with fellows; self-actualized man: motivated by autonomy and independence; complex man: motivated by economic, social, and autonomous needs; psychological man: motivated by a mixture of complicated factors. Significant motivators: employee attitudes can be positively influenced through staff-orientation programs and an overall atmosphere of trust; achievement challenges are easily built into project work; appreciation for effort should be clearly expressed through a variety of means; responsibility reduces boredom and frustration, if work is properly allocated; money acts as a strong or weak motivator, according to economic circumstances; advancement possibilities are reduced for employees where work is short-term or overspecialized; participation in decision making can generate a strong commitment from employees; competition stimulates innovation and affects greater output; social relationships at work are improved by company-sponsored events and courses.
Rojas and Aramvareekul [
Cox et al. [
Tabassi and Bakar, [
This study provides a comprehensive review of worker motivation in the construction industry. Published journal articles are the main source of information used in this study. Three categories, definitions for motivation, theories for motivation, and motivational themes, are used as the basis for the review. Motivational themes are further discussed under motivational models, work environment/culture, incentives and empowerment, and worker management. There is a strong history of researchers who explored motivational theories in a wide variety of formats, including case studies. Yet, too few have focused their work specifically on the construction worker. There are currently no Canadian studies looking at construction worker motivation. Similarly, there is no validated and published research work in Canada devoted to examining construction worker efficiencies, productivity, and communication needs. Canadian construction industry is referring to outdated and irrelevant publications of USA for productivity, working efficiencies, and overtime calculations.
The first step to measure and evaluate worker motivation on construction projects was to develop a theoretical framework with the use of Vroom’s expectancy theory [
As per Cox et al. [
Jarkas et al. [
Furthermore, Alarcón et al. [
Finally, previous researchers have suggested that changing the management style (primarily regarding communication) and providing relevant incentives have the greatest potential to initiate a shift towards better performance and productivity in the industry. The opportunity awaits a champion.
Although there are multiple studies on motivational theories and human behaviour, very few are focused specifically on construction worker motivation. There are no works in the published literature, which focus solely on the motivation of the Canadian construction workers. There are very limited validated studies examining worker efficiencies, productivity, and the skills of the commercial construction workers in Canada.
This review found fifty two published articles that addressed worker productivity in close context to construction. Twenty two of these works were not presented in this paper because they did not directly relate to construction worker motivation. The thirty articles that did address this topic were tabulated, categorized, and reviewed. Of these articles, nine addressed motivation models, five addressed worker environment/culture, nine addressed worker incentive and empowerment, and seven addressed worker management. The findings show that the body of work regarding construction worker motivation is limited and that no motivational model has been widely used, in the construction industry. After reviewing the literature, this paper concludes that the previous work suggests two primary methods for improving the motivation of construction workers: (1) relevant worker incentives (intrinsic or extrinsic) and (2) improved management practices, specifically regarding communication with workers. The first of these points is directly linked to the second. The majority of key factors that influence motivation can be directed, controlled, or delivered by management.
Finally, future research should address the ability of management to implement motivational programs in the construction industry. Worker motivation models have been previously presented but lack widespread adoption and implementation by management. Subsequent research should show that practical application of motivation models will not come from the construction worker but from those with authority to set project definition and direction.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.