Farmers’ Perception on the Welfare of Broiler Chickens in Smallholder Production Systems in Kiambu County, Kenya

In Kenya, commercial broiler production is growing rapidly due to increasing demand for poultry meat resulting in higher incomes for farmers. Due to this increase in demand, broiler chicken production is increasingly becoming intensive where chickens are overstocked in deep litter systems subjecting the birds to suffering perpetuated through burns on their shanks and breasts with constant footpad lesions, thus compromising their welfare. This study was conducted to determine the farmers’ attitudes towards the welfare of broiler chickens in smallholder production systems in Kiambu County, Kenya. A total of 120 farmers were randomly chosen for the study consisting of 42 and 78 respondents from Kikuyu and Kabete subcounties, re-spectively. A semistructured questionnaire was used to interview the farmers on their knowledge, attitudes, and practices in regard to broiler welfare. The results of this study indicated that most farmers (74%) in Kikuyu and Kabete subcounties had knowledge about broiler welfare. Media, hatcheries, agrovet centres, and extension agents were the main sources of information on broiler welfare to farmers at 61%, 40%, 38.8%, and 31.5% respectively. Farmers perceived that good feeding (88%), good health (83%), suitable housing (82%), and appropriate behaviour (48%) were very important indicators of broiler chicken welfare. Gumboro (infectious bursal disease) and new castle disease (NCD) were prevented through vaccination by most farmers (91%), while coccidiosis was controlled through cleaning and disinfection of broiler sheds and equipment as well as treatment of sick birds with coccidiostat. In conclusion, farmers’ perception on broiler welfare has a bearing on the performance of broiler chickens.


Introduction
In Kenya, the commercial broiler production is growing rapidly and is one of the popular animal husbandry subsectors contributing about 7.8% of the overall GDP ( [1], [2]). e country has also, over the last decade, seen an increase in poultry numbers in such areas as Kiambu, Kajiado, Machakos, ika, Mombasa, and Nairobi counties, where commercial farming is practiced by many farmers ( [1], [2]). e poultry industry is also an important income-creating activity in Kenya. Furthermore, the annual poultry meat consumption in Kenya rose sharply from 54.8 metric tonnes in 2000 to 91.4 metric tonnes in 2010, and it is expected to rise to 164.6 metric tonnes by 2030 [3]. In Nairobi, consumption is expected to rise from 6 to 30.5 thousand metric tons [4].
High growth rates, e ciency in feed conversion, as well as high carcass yields have been the main objectives in intensive selection of broiler chickens [5]. An increase in demand for poultry meat has led to intensi cation of broiler operations, where the chickens are kept in high densities in deep litter systems. Poor cleaning of litter units after cycle of production results in ammonia build up in houses causing burns on the birds' feet with severe and constant footpad wounds that often compromise the welfare of the birds [6]. Broiler chickens farmed intensively are kept at a high stocking density to increase pro t from production. However, it is well understood that increasing the density compromises the welfare of the birds. Berg and Yngvesson [7] reported that stocking density above 30 kg per m 2 leads to a reduction in growth due to heat stress. Accordingly, overcrowding of broilers leads to high dissipation of heat of metabolism together with an increase in litter temperature that enhances microbial activity because of higher moisture and nitrogen content causing heat stress [6]. Stocking density also impacts the welfare of housed birds mainly through the quality of litter and air [8].
is causes inconvenience to the birds as they approach market age. us, observing and monitoring the physical conditions and behaviour of the birds is very important [9].
Broiler chicken welfare concerns have prompted many consumers in Europe to demand an increased supply of broilers reared on free-range systems, which have access to daylight, fresh air, environmental enrichment, and the opportunity to exercise outdoors during the production cycle [10]. Conversely, a report by Lake Research Partners [11] in the U.S. showed that 77% of consumers were concerned about animal husbandry practices and checked food labels prior to purchase. As a result, a certification scheme was established by traders to embrace animal welfare ensuring that consumers' perception of animal welfare has a bearing on the type and brand of poultry products they purchase [5,12]. e welfare of an animal encompasses the treatment received by the animal, for example, well-being, husbandry, and behaviour [13]. erefore, the animal is said to be in good welfare condition when it enjoys the following five freedoms: (i) freedom from hunger and thirst; (ii) freedom from discomfort; (iii) freedom from pain, injury, and disease; (iv) freedom to express normal behaviour; and (v) freedom from fear and distress [14].
In Europe, the Council of the European Union has approved a directive that ensures the protection of broiler chickens [6]. However, in Kenya, there is no legislation that can be compared to that in Europe and America. Nonetheless, two livestock acts, namely, the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act of 1963 and the Animal Diseases Act of 1965 would guarantee animal welfare in Kenya if enforced sufficiently [15]. erefore, this study was conducted to determine the farmers' perceptions of the welfare of broiler chickens in smallholder production systems in Kiambu County, Kenya.

Study Area.
e study was conducted in Kikuyu and Kabete subcounties of Kiambu County, one of the 47 administrative units of Kenya (Figure 1). e county and subcounties were selected as study areas based on the poultry population and proximity to the University of Nairobi.

Sample Size and Its Determination.
Simple random sampling was carried out to select the 120 farmers who took part in the study from the total population of 172 farmers keeping broilers in the area. A sample of 120 farmers was used according to the formula of Yamane (1967 : 886) [16]. e number of broiler farmers in the area was 172 [17].
Where n � the sample size, N � the population size, and e � 0.05; the level of precision (error term). By solving for n, a sample size of 120 was obtained.

Data Collection.
Simple random sampling was done to select broiler farmers who were then interviewed using a semistructured questionnaire to collect information on demographic and socioeconomic parameters. ese included age, gender, marital status, level of education, and land size of the farm in hectares. Information regarding the farmers' level of knowledge, attitudes, and practices in relation to broiler welfare was also collected.

Data Analysis.
e obtained data was first systematically checked before it was carefully entered into the excel sheet for coding. e data were then imported into SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), version 21.0 for statistical analysis [18], where the frequencies, means, standard deviations, percentages, and correlations were computed. Summary tables and graphs were prepared using Microsoft Excel and Word processing programs. Figure 2 shows the age of the farmers who took part in the study. e majority of them (46.6%) were between 31 and 50 years of age, followed by those (39.3%) in the age bracket of 51 to 70 years. Farmers interviewed in the age group of 21-30 years and over 70 years were only 9.8% and 4.3%, respectively. e age group of 31-50 years is usually composed of energetic individuals who often show a commitment to farming [19]. e age category between 21 and 30 years comprises young people who are normally inexperienced and have newly ventured into poultry farming with little or no capital. On the other hand, the age group of 50 years and above mostly represents older adults who are retired and keep poultry for supplementing their pension. However, according to Shukri [20], the age of the farmers may affect their level of adoption of modern poultry farming practices as older farmers are more rigid to the adoption of the latest technologies than their younger counterparts. Besides, this may influence their awareness of emerging trends in the sector, such as that of broiler welfare, which may limit the level of output from poultry production.

Gender and Marital Status of the Farmers.
Gender and marital status of farmers in the study area are shown in Table 1. About 71% of the farmers were women, and the rest were men. On average, above 90% of the farmers were married, while singles and widows/widowers were only 6 and 2%, respectively. Married farmers have higher chances of venturing into broiler farming than their single or widowed counterparts due to the availability of capital and labor as their partners and children may support them. Recent studies have shown that women contribute about 43% of the 2 Advances in Agriculture labor force in the agriculture sector in developing nations [21]. Moreover, the role played by women in poultry management is of utmost importance as chickens are often managed and fed within the homestead [22]. Table 2. An average of 51% of farmers had attained secondary school education, while 32 and 17% of them had attained primary and postsecondary education, respectively. e level of education in uences farmers' learning and problem-solving techniques as well as the decision-making process, resulting in increased agricultural productivity [23,24]. In a study in Bureti subcounty, Kirui [25] reported that farmers with postsecondary education had better returns than those who had a primary or secondary school. e correlation coe cient between the level of education and farmers' knowledge of animal welfare was r −0.275 (Table 3). is implied that the relationship between the level of education and farmers' knowledge of animal welfare was signi cant (p 0.01).

Land Size.
e land size owned by the farmers in the study area is shown in Table 4. On average, the land size was 0.81 ± 0.9 hectares per household. is was double the size of land owned by farmers in Kabete subcounty that was reported as 0.4 ± 0.3 hectares by Shukri [20]. Indeed, in this study, it was found that the average land size per family in the ve wards that made up Kabete subcounty was 0.4 ± 0.3, which was similar to the ndings of Shukri [20]. However, data from the County Government of Kiambu [26] indicated that Kabete subcounty is more densely populated than Kikuyu subcounty, thus land size shrinks as the human population increases [27]. e land size in Kikuyu subcounty was 1.18 ± 1.44 ha/farmer, which was higher than that in Kabete.   aware of broiler welfare, as shown in Figure 3. Only a small fraction (25.8%) of farmers were not aware of broiler welfare needs. e proportion (74.2%) from the two subcounties was relatively higher than reported by Shukri [20], who found that 59% of poultry farmers in Kabete subcounty were aware of broiler welfare. e level of awareness about broiler welfare in Kabete subcounty (93.6%) was much higher than in Kikuyu subcounty (54.7%). is di erence might be due to the farmers' accessibility of extension services.

Sources of Information on Broiler
Welfare. e sources of information to farmers on broiler welfare were the media, hatcheries, agrovets, government extension agents, feed millers, social networks, and NGOs (Table 5). e media was the most important source of information representing 60.1%. Within the media, farmers identi ed two TV programmes, which are aired in the area, namely, Farmer's TV and Mugambo wa Murimi as important sources. is was reported during a focus group discussion with the farmers. However, hatcheries, agrovets, and government extension agents were also important in disseminating information at 40.2, 37.8, and 30.5%, respectively. Similarly, farmers also sought information on broiler welfare from feed millers, other farmers, and NGOs at 15.9, 15.8, and 2.4%, respectively, in addition to eld days. Electronic and print media were also used to disseminate information on animal welfare. is agreed with the study reported by OIE in 2017, which stated that information sharing that considers language barriers improves farmers' responses towards the health and welfare of their animals. Conversely, Shukri [20] reported that through the media, extension programs, and training, farmers could acquire information on animal welfare.

Perception of Farmers on Broiler
Welfare. Farmers' attitude to broiler welfare were assessed using several indicators of welfare (Table 6). About 88.3 ± 0.32% of farmers agreed that good feeding was a very important indicator of broiler chicken welfare. Also, 83, 82, and 48% of farmers indicated that good health, suitable housing, and appropriate behaviour, respectively, were important indicators of good broiler welfare.
is nding agreed with the study by Hansson and Lagerkvist [28], who concluded that identifying farmers' attitudes towards animal welfare improves their understanding on how to determine the living conditions of their animals.

Measures Put in Place to Control Diseases in the Study
Area. Most farmers managed commonly occurring diseases through vaccination (90.2%), isolating sick birds (29.8%), and treatment (22.6%), as shown in Table 7. Farmers also reported during a focus group discussion that sanitation practices such as cleanliness and disinfection were other important practices that they employed for disease prevention and control. Conversely, 91.4% of farmers sourced their drugs and vaccines from agrovet shops, while a small proportion of farmers obtained theirs from hatcheries and     private veterinarians at 6.6 and 1.5%, respectively. About 72.5% of farmers were supported by agrovet shops in disease prevention and control. However, 13.9, 12.3, and 3.7% of farmers obtained their support from private and government veterinarians and hatcheries, respectively. Although there is no e ective treatment against pneumonia, at least 60% of farmers in Kikuyu subcounty managed their birds against this condition (Figure 4). However, pneumonia can be prevented or controlled by avoiding moist litter and reducing stocking density in broiler pens [9]. Also, 40% of farmers in Kikuyu subcounty managed their birds against water belly (ascites). Water belly causes heart failure and a ects liver function in broilers, and it is said to a ect 5% of broilers in the world causing enormous mortality and carcass condemnation to broilers in modern farms [10]. ese were the most common diseases encountered by farmers in the two subcounties. Although Gumboro (infectious bursal disease) and New Castle Disease were not common during the study, farmers reported to have controlled them through vaccination, while coccidiosis was managed through cleaning and disinfection of broiler sheds and equipment.

Feeding
Practices. About 74% of farmers in Kabete subcounty measured the amount of feed provided to their birds based on the age of birds, whereas 56% of them from the same subcounty determined the amount of feed by estimation ( Figure 5). However, 50% of farmers in Kikuyu subcounty gave feed ad libitum to their birds. Due to the high cost of feed, only 32% of farmers in Kabete fed their broilers ad libitum. Ochieng et al. [29] reported that the high cost of feeds (about 60-75% of production cost) often frustrates many farmers who could not provide enough feed to their birds.

Farmers' Experience in Broiler
Farming. About 57% of farmers in Kikuyu reported having kept broilers for a period of 1-5 years, while 37% of farmers in Kabete reported the same ( Figure 6). About 14% of farmers from the two   Advances in Agriculture 5 subcounties had more than 5 years of experience in broiler farming, whereas only 11% of them had less than one year of experience. is implied that more farmers had ≤5 years of experience in broiler farming and thus had learned management practices for ensuring the good welfare of their birds. Long years of experience increase poultry productivity due to the knowledge gained in management [30].

Conclusion
Over 70% of farmers were informed about broiler chicken welfare. e media, hatcheries, agrovet centres, and extension agents were important sources of information on broiler welfare to the farmers. e overall assessment of this study was that the perception of farmers on broiler chicken welfare in uences their performance.
Data Availability e data used to support the ndings of this study have been deposited in the University of Nairobi Research Archive repository (https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/ 152943). e data was collected from Kabete and Kikuyu subcounties of Kiambu County, Kenya, from the period of January to May 2019. erefore, the data that are partially presented in this study cannot be released due to copyright concerns.
Disclosure e main article of this manuscript has been presented as a thesis at the University of Nairobi, Kenya.

Conflicts of Interest
e authors declare that they have no con icts of interest.
Acknowledgments is study was funded by the USAID/South Sudan Mission, as part of the Feed the Future Initiative, under the CGIAR Fund, award number BFS-G-11-00002. e authors thank the extension sta of Kikuyu and Kabete subcounties for their help in data collection and mobilization of the farmers.

Supplementary Materials
Additional supplementary information was collected and analyzed but not included in this manuscript, and it has been presented as tables from the ten wards which make up  Advances in Agriculture