With the increasing number of contaminants in the marine environment, various experimental organisms have been “taken into labs” by investigators to find the most suitable environmentally relevant models for toxicity testing. The marine medaka,
Estuaries and coastal waters are contaminated by high levels of anthropogenic pollutants [
In addition, the studies of the organisms living in the two different environments have also presented different results. Although
The biologic impact of toxic pollutants on fish is an important area of study in ecotoxicology. Fish models, such as zebrafish (
The eggs and larvae of Studies of
All of these advantages enhance the potential of
Sharing a high degree of similarity, most of the research findings of the congeneric species of
A substantial number of molecular biological studies for
In addition to the above specified genes of organ development, some functional genes in different tissues have been analyzed as well (Table
Expression of the cloned genes of
Functions | Genes | Exposed tissues | Exposed to | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Reference genes |
|
|||
|
||||
Hypoxia-responsive |
|
Ovary, liver, testis, kidney, gill, brain, spleen, intestine, eye, muscle, and skin | Hypoxia | [ |
|
Liver, testis | Hypoxia | [ | |
|
Liver, testis, and embryos | Hypoxia, PFOS | [ | |
|
Liver, gill, heart, kidney, gill, brain, spleen, intestine, eye, muscle, ovary, and testis | Hypoxia | [ | |
|
Liver, gill, and heart | WAFs, Hypoxia | [ | |
|
||||
Immune toxicity |
|
Embryos | PFOS | [ |
|
Embryos | PFOS | [ | |
|
Embryos | PFOS | [ | |
|
Embryos | PFOS | [ | |
|
Embryos, whole fish | PFOS, WAFs | [ | |
|
||||
Complement-related genes |
|
Liver | PBDE-47 | [ |
|
Liver | PBDE-47 | [ | |
|
Liver | PBDE-47, |
[ | |
|
Liver | [ | ||
|
Liver |
|
[ | |
|
Liver, spleen, gill, intestine, ovary, testis, brain, and embryos |
|
[ | |
|
Liver |
|
[ | |
|
||||
Inflammation-related genes |
|
Embryos | PFOS, BPA | [ |
|
Embryos | PFOS, BPA | [ | |
|
Embryos | BPA | [ | |
|
Embryos | PFOS, BPA | [ | |
|
||||
Osmoregulatory mechanism | Na+/K+ |
Gill, embryos | BPA, SW (35 |
[ |
Na+, K+, 2Cl− |
Gill, liver, testis, intestine, ovary, brain, muscle, kidney, heart, Fin, and eye | SW (35 |
[ | |
|
Gill, intestine, kidney, brain, eye, liver, and caudal fin | SW (35 |
[ | |
|
||||
Cardiac development-related genes |
|
Embryos | PFOS, BPA | [ |
|
Embryos | PFOS, BPA | [ | |
|
Embryos | PFOS | [ | |
|
Embryos | PFOS, BPA | [ | |
|
Embryos | PFOS, BPA | [ | |
|
Embryos | PFOS, BPA | [ | |
|
Embryos | BPA | [ | |
|
Embryos | PFOS | [ | |
|
||||
Metabolisms |
|
Liver, gill, embryos, intestine, and ovary | PFOS, WAFs | [ |
|
WAFs | [ | ||
|
WAFs | [ | ||
|
WAFs | [ | ||
|
WAFs | [ | ||
|
WAFs | [ | ||
|
Embryos, whole fish | PFOS, WAFs | [ | |
|
WAFs | [ | ||
|
WAFs | [ | ||
|
WAFs | [ | ||
|
WAFs | [ | ||
|
Liver, embryos, and larvae | PFOS, E2, EE2, BPA, and NP | [ | |
|
Brain, kidney, liver, muscle, ovary, and testicle | [ | ||
|
Embryos | PFOS | [ | |
|
Embryos, liver, gill, intestine | PFOS | [ | |
|
Embryos | PFOS | [ | |
|
Embryos | PFOS | [ |
Notes: 2,2′,4,4′-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (PBDE-47), bisphenol A (BPA), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), sea water (SW), fresh water (FW), brackish water (BW), 17
Second generation high-throughput sequencing technology has greatly enhanced the ability to obtain genetic information. Huang et al. extracted RNA from
Differentially expressed genes can be largely obtained in fish after exposure to pollutants using gene chip technology. Chinese scholars have constructed a dedicated gene chip for
The detection of protein expression levels requires corresponding antibodies. Because of the conservation of homologous proteins, antibodies have certain commonalities in allied species. The antibody library of zebrafish has been relatively completed; thus we can use them to directly screen for the specific antibody that reacts with the homologous protein in
The tissue distribution of the protein expression in
Expression of proteins in different tissues of
Related functions | Proteins | Expression tissues and exposure condition | References |
---|---|---|---|
Cell structure | Histone-binding protein RBBP4 | Gill (Br) | [ |
Gelsolin | Gill, brain (Br) | [ | |
Krt4 protein | Gill (Br) | [ | |
|
|||
Oxidative stress response | Hemoglobin beta chain | Gill (Br) | [ |
Histone H3 | Gill (Br) | [ | |
Glial fibrillary acidic protein | Brain (Br) | [ | |
Keratin 15 [KRT15] | Brain (Br), liver (Hg) | [ | |
Zgc: 65851 | Brain (Br) | [ | |
Type I cytokeratin, enveloping layer [CYT1] | Brain (Br), liver (Hg) | [ | |
Myosin light chain 2 | Brain (Br) | [ | |
Tropomyosin alpha-3 chain | Brain (Br) | [ | |
|
Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Keratin 8 | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
|
Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Keratin 18 | Liver, brain (Hg) | [ | |
|
Liver, brain (Hg) | [ | |
Type I keratin-like protein | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Lamin type B | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Krt5 protein | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
Type II basic cytokeratin | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
Keratin K10 [KRT10] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Novel protein similar to vertebrate plectin 1 [PLEC] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Peroxiredoxin 4 | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Peroxiredoxin 6 | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Glutathione S-transferase [GSTR] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
SOD [Cu-Zn] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 family, member A2 | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
Aldehyde dehydrogenase, mitochondrial | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
Peroxiredoxin-2 [PRDX2] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Natural killer enhancing factor | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Peroxiredoxin-1 [PRDX1] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
DJ-1 protein [DJ-1] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Cathepsin D [CTSD] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
proliferating cell nuclear antigen [PCNA] | Testis, muscle, kidney, liver Cheek, brain, intestine, and ovary embryo during each development period (H) | [ | |
Telomerase Reverse Transcriptase [TERT] | Testis, brain, muscle, gill, intestine, kidney (N), and liver (H) | [ | |
superoxide dismutase [SOD] | Whole fish (Z) | [ | |
Metallothionein [MT] | Whole fish (Z) | [ | |
heat shock protein 70 [HSP70] | Whole fish (Z) | [ | |
|
|||
Metabolism | ApoA-IV4 | Gill (Br) | [ |
Aldose reductase | Gill, brain (Br) | [ | |
Pyruvate carboxylase | Brain (Br) | [ | |
Dpysl5a protein | Brain (Br) | [ | |
Triosephosphate isomerase | Brain (Br) | [ | |
Enolase | Brain (Br) | [ | |
Glutamine synthetase | Brain (Br, Hg) | [ | |
Isovaleryl coenzyme A dehydrogenase | Brain (Br) | [ | |
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase | Brain (Br) | [ | |
Homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Alanyl-tRNA synthetase, cytoplasmic | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Dihydrolipoamide S-acetyltransferase | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Adenosylhomocysteinase | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 component subunit alpha, somatic form, mitochondrial | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Brain-type fatty acid binding protein | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Methionine adenosyltransferase-like | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
S-formylglutathione hydrolase | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Apolipoprotein A1 | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
Pyruvate kinase | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
Dihydropyrimidinase-related protein 5 | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
Dihydropyrimidinase-like 2 | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
Enolase 1, (alpha) | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
Creatine kinase, brain b | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
Total glutathione [GSH] | Whole fish (W) | [ | |
Glutathione |
Whole fish (W) | [ | |
Sulfotransferase [SULT] | Whole fish (W) | [ | |
Superoxide dismutase [SOD] | Whole fish (W) | [ | |
Glutathione reductase [GR] | Whole fish (W) | [ | |
Glutathione peroxidase [GPx] | Whole fish (W) | [ | |
Catalase, CAT | Whole fish (W) | [ | |
ATP synthase subunit d, mitochondrial [ATP5H] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Electron-transferring-flavoprotein dehydrogenase [ETFDH] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Electron transferring flavoprotein subunit alpha, mitochondrial [ETFA] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Pyruvate dehydrogenase (lipoamide) beta [PDHB] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Phytanoyl-CoA dioxygenase domain-containing protein 1 [PHYD1] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Delta3,5-delta2,4-dienoyl-CoA isomerase, mitochondrial [ECH1] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Phosphorylase [PYGB] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Formimidoyltransferase-cyclodeaminase [FTCD] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
|
|||
Signal transduction | Putative transient receptor protein 2 | Gill (Br) | [ |
Myosin regulatory light chain 2 | Gill (Br) | [ | |
FXYD domain-containing ion transport regulator | Gill (S) | [ | |
NKCC1a-like protein | Gill (S) | [ | |
NKA |
Gill (S) | [ | |
Grancalcin | Gill (Br) | [ | |
|
|||
Protein modification | Myosin light chain 2 | Gill (Br) | [ |
Calreticulin, like 2 | Gill (Br) | [ | |
Transforming protein RhoA | Brain (Br, Hg) | [ | |
Calmodulin | Brain (Br) | [ | |
Annexin 4 | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
14-3-3E1 protein | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
14-3-3 protein | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Annexin A13 | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
Cytosolic nonspecific dipeptidase | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Proteasome alpha 1 subunit | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
HSP-90 | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
|
|||
Other function related | Chaperonin containing TCP1, subunit 8 (theta) | Brain (Hg) | [ |
Beta-synuclein | Brain (Br) | [ | |
SH3-domain GRB2-like endophilin B2 | Brain (Br) | [ | |
Complement component C3-1 | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Carbonic anhydrase 1 | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
ATPase, H+ transporting, V0 subunit D isoform 1 | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
Transferrin | Brain (Hg) | [ | |
Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit 2 beta [EIF3S2] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Histone H4 | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
Ependymin [EPD] | Liver (Hg) | [ | |
GammaN1 crystallin [CRYGN1] | Liver (Hg) | [ |
Notes: the abbreviations in parentheses mean the protein expression in the environment of exposure to normal (N), hypoxia (H), brevetoxins (Br), HgCl2 (Hg), salinity (S), nZnO (Z), and WAFs of Iranian crude oil (W).
Proteomics refers to the research method of identifying protein characteristics on the large-scale level, and it has become one of the hot spots of aquatic toxicology [
Utilization of
Responsive to | Toxicological research about | Age of fish | Exposure concentration and time | Main works | Main conclusions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Organic chemicals | ||||||
WAFs | CYP1A-involved detoxification mechanism | 3-week-old fish and adults | 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100% WAF for 24 h; 5% for 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h | Transcript profiling of whole |
WAF induced CYP-involved detoxification mechanism but reduced steroidogenic metabolism; |
[ |
PBDE-47 | Immune-modulatory effects | Three-month-old | 290 and 580 ng/day from 2 dpf to hatching | Correlation between BDE-47 body burden and complement gene expression (RT-PCR) in different genders | Genes studied were gender dependent (males > females); BDE-47 is not biotransformed in marine medaka. | [ |
Maternal transfer | 2- and 3-month-old |
|
Accumulation of PBDE 47 in 2-month-old fish and maternal transfer of PBDE 47 from adult female medaka to eggs | PBDE 47 transfer is associated with lipid mobilization during egg production. | [ | |
PFOS | Mitochondrial dysfunction | Embryos | 0.25 and 1 mg/L from 2 dpf to 6 dpf | Sequence the RNA mixtures using Solexa/Illumina RNA-Seq at various developmental stages and after various types of exposure, and DGE and qRT-PCR analysis for relative gene expression | The mitochondrial dysfunction appears to be involved in multiple toxicological effects of PFOS on |
[ |
Precocious hatching | Embryos | 1, 4, and 16 mg/L from 2 dpf to hatching | Record the time for hatching, hatching rate and mortality of fry hatched within a week, and hatching enzymatic activity and RT-PCR analysis for gene expression | PFOS induced the hatching enzyme, leading to the precocious hatching of embryos and the decrease of larvae survival. | [ | |
Endocrine-disruptive effect | Embryos | 1, 4, and 16 mg/L for 2 dpf, 4 dpf, and 10 dpf, respectively | The mortality and malformation rates, the transcriptional responses of the ER, AHR, and PPAR pathways to PFOS by RT-PCR, and quantification of PFOS in exposure solutions and medaka embryos | PFOS has estrogenic activity and endocrine-disruptive properties and could elicit gene responses in a stage-specific manner. | [ | |
Cardiac toxicity | Embryos | 1, 4, and 16 mg/L for from 2 dpf to hatching | Cardiac morphology, heart rates and the SV-BA distance of the heart was measured; RT-PCR analysis of gene expression profiles was conducted. | PFOS affected the development and function of the heart in the marine medaka embryos. | [ | |
Immunotoxicity | Embryos | 0, 1, 4, and 16 mg/L from 2 dpf to hatching | PFOS body burden, survival rates, and growth parameters of fish larvae during 17 dph, liver histological examination, and gene expression in fish larvae after LPS exposure for 12 h at 27 dph | The immunosuppression effects caused by PFOS could lead to functional dysfunction or weakness of the immune system in the fish larvae. | [ | |
BPA | Cardiac toxicity | Embryos | 200 |
Heart beat rate, SV-BA distance of embryos, body length and width, histology, and BPA-induced inflammation-related genes and heart-related genes | BPA induced cardiac toxicity of the |
[ |
PAHs (ANF, Pyr, Phe, and BaP) | Developmental malformations | Embryos | Different PAHs for 18 days | Deformity assessment, heart rate, heart elongation, hatch rate, and EROD and Caspase-3/7 activity assays of embryos exposed to PAHs with or without 100 |
Inhibition of CYP1A, EROD, and Caspase-3/7 activities can be used as indicator in the ecological early warning and PAHs detection. | [ |
Estrogen (E2, EE2, NP, and BPA) | Estrogenic pollutants | Sexually mature | E2, EE2 (1, 10, 100, and 500 ng/L); NP, BPA (1, 10, 100, and 200 |
E2-inducible choriogenins expression in embryos and yolk-sac larvae by end-point PCR; effects of EE2, BPA, and NP, respectively, on |
The rapid inducibility (within 24 h) of |
[ |
Benzotriazole | Reproductive effect | 3-month-old | 0.01, 0.1, and 1 mg/L for 4 and 35 days | Benzotriazole can induce |
Benzotriazole had adverse potential on the endocrine system. | [ |
|
||||||
Inorganic chemicals | ||||||
DWNTs | Ecotoxicity data of DWNTs | 48 h posthatching | 10, 50, and 100 mg/L for 14 days | Mortality and total length of medaka fish larvae over 14 days exposed to different concentrations of stirred and sonicated double-walled carbon nanotubes. | So-DWNTs are more toxic than st-DWNTs; the dispersion method and size of aggregations should be considered in DWNT toxicity testing. | [ |
nZnO | Sublethal toxicities | <24 h | 4 and 40 mg/L ZnO for 96 h | Stress responses in fish after acute exposure (SDS-PAGE) | nZnO did not display the same toxicity as ZnO towards the fish. | [ |
HgCl2 | Hepatotoxicity and neurotoxicity | Weighing 0.5 ± 0.05 g | 1000 |
Protein expression profile in liver and brain exposed to HgCl2 (MALDI-TOF/TOF MS) and mercury accumulation and damaged liver ultrastructure in medaka | Hg hepatotoxicity might involve oxidative stress, cytoskeleton impairment, and a dysfunction in metabolism. | [ |
Cd2+, Hg2+, Cr6+, and Pb2+ | Toxic effects of heavy metals | Embryos and larvae | 96 h and 14 d | The mortality, heart beat rate, and malformation rates | The fish species has relatively high sensitivity to heavy metal stress. | [ |
|
||||||
Detrimental organisms | ||||||
|
Immunotoxicity | 5-month old | 6 × 105 cfu/fish for 6 h, 24 h and 48 h | qPCR analysis of the complement genes in liver; age-, tissue-, and gender-differences in the expression of |
|
[ |
|
Neurotoxicity | Adult | 0, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16 and 18 |
Algal toxicity (toxic symptoms, 24 hour mortality, 1/LT50) and its supernatant, MeOH and TCM extracts of |
|
[ |
|
Ichthyotoxins of |
4–8 months-old | 10,000 cells/mL for 0, 24, 48 and 60 h | Algal cell density, growth rate, their toxicity (toxic symptoms, 24-hour mortality, 1/LT50) and its supernatant, MeOH and TCM extracts to |
Fish susceptibility to |
[ |
|
||||||
Environmental stress | ||||||
Hypoxia | Hypoxia-responsive | 4-week old adult | 1.8 ± 0.2 mg O2/L for 3 months; 12 weeks 1.8 mg O2/L for 24, 48 and 96 h | Adult male fish were processed for ISH and IHC; volume density indices of omTERT mRNA and protein, PCNA and TUNEL signals in liver hepatocytes after chronic exposure to hypoxia; expression of |
Hypoxia upregulates omTERT expression via omHIFhif-1 in liver and testis and the omLepR omLEPR expression demonstrated its independent control in endocrine and peripheral tissues. | [ |
Ichthyotoxins of |
4–8 months old | 7 mg/L, 6.0 mg/L and 1 mg/L DO for 60 h | Oxygen consumption rate, threshold lethal DO and correlation between body weight and survival time of marine medaka inside the sealed syringe | Fish susceptibility to |
[ | |
Salinity | Osmoregulatory mechanism | 2.50 ± 0.30 cm | SW (35 |
Plasma osmolality, MWC, Na+/Cl− concentration, time course, NKCC1a-like protein expression, NKA activity, NKA-IR cell activity, NKA |
The expression pattern of branchial |
[ |
Ichthyotoxins of |
4–8 months old | 70 |
The LT50 of marine medaka at different ages (4–8 months-old) exposed to 70 |
Fish susceptibility to |
[ |
Notes: days postfertilization (dpf); days posthatching (dph); sinus venosus-bulbus arteriosus (SV-BA); lipopolysaccharides (LPS);
Comparative toxicity of
Exposing to |
|
Other species | References |
---|---|---|---|
PFOS | Hatched in advance and hatching rate increased. | Hatch was delayed and hatching rate was not affected or decreased in zebrafish. | [ |
Ke in the larvae ranged from 0.04/d to 0.07/d. | Ke ranged from 0.053 to 1.700 L/kg/d in blood, kidney, liver and gall bladder and from 0.02 to 0.23/d in carcass and liver concentrations in rainbow trout ( |
[ | |
Did not alter |
Led to high mortality in zebrafish | [ | |
|
|||
Phe, Pyr, and BaP | NOEC values were 50, 25, and 10 |
NOEC values were 10, 50, and 1.8 |
[ |
|
|||
E2 | The mRNA level of |
Decreased the production of 11-KT and mRNA levels of steroidogenic enzymes in zebrafish and decreased the production of testosterone in human | [ |
|
|||
DWNTs | Growth inhibition was observed at 10 mg/L for so-DWNTs but not for st-DWNTs. | Population growth was reduced to 0.1 mg/L for so-DWNTs and 10 mg/L for st-DWNTs in the water flea. | [ |
|
|||
nZnO | Lack of change was observed in the SOD activities. | SOD activities were decreased for the first few days but recovered soon in |
[ |
|
|||
Cercariae | Did not infect | Infected in liver and kidneys of |
[ |
|
|||
Salinity | Prefers hypoosmotic conditions | Prefers hyperosmotic conditions in Javanese medaka ( |
[ |
MWC was constant with the increase of salinity in |
MWC was decreased with the increase of salinity in |
[ | |
|
|||
Hypoxia | HAS was not present. | HAS was identified in zebrafish and |
[ |
|
|
[ |
Notes: the elimination rate constant (Ke); No Observed Effect Concentration (NOEC); 11-ketotestostrone (11-KT); HIF-1 ancillary sequence (HAS).
The choriogenin of teleost fish is considered to be part of the structural interlayer of chorionic precursor cells, which are sensitive to estrogenic contaminants. It increased the expression of the egg-shell precursor protein gene in the liver when exposed to a high concentration of 17
The WAF exposure induced CYP-involved detoxification effects but reduced CYP-involved steroidogenic metabolism in the marine medaka. As well-characterized biomarkers of toxicants exposures,
Acute toxicity data (96 h LC50/EC50) of seawater organisms exposed to PAHs.
Scientific name | LC50/EC50 | PAHs ( |
References | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Phe | Pyr | BaP | |||
|
LC50 | 310 | 49 | — | [ |
|
LC50 | 130 | — | — | [ |
|
LC50 | 546 | 174 | 3.46 | [ |
|
LC50 | — | 15.2 | — | [ |
|
EC50 | 71.5 | 56.8 | 51 | [ |
|
EC50 | 2070 | 209 | 286 | [ |
|
LC50 | 3200 | 2000 | — | [ |
|
LC50 | 295 | — | — | [ |
|
LC50 | — | 13.1 | — | [ |
|
LC50 | 6399 | 3127 | 5705 | [ |
|
LC50 | 800 | — | — | [ |
|
LC50 | 520 | — | — | [ |
|
LC50 | — | 1.056 | 1.56 | [ |
Notes: median lethal concentration (LC50); median effective concentration (EC50).
Studies quantified the endogenous expression of all six complement system genes including
PFOS has estrogenic activity and endocrine-disruptive properties that elicit transcriptional responses on POPs-related pathways in a stage-specific manner [
Some research has also been conducted in their laboratory with embryos exposed to low concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA). The result showed that the expression of heart development-related genes and inflammation-related genes in
Subacute toxicity experiments with ambient concentrations of pollutants are often closer to environmental value and thus have great significance in toxicological evaluation. In evaluating the toxicity of ZnO, researchers evaluated the subacute toxicity of two zinc oxides on the expression of SOD, MT, and HSP70 in
Acute toxicity data (LC50, mg/L) of metals in various species.
Species | Exposure ages | LC50 (mg/L) | References | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cu2+ | Cd2+ | Pb2+ | Cr6+ | Hg2+ | Zn2+ | |||
|
Juvenile | — | 0.396 | 0.830 | 3.430 | — | — | [ |
|
Larvae | 52.8 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.03 | 4.5 | [ |
|
Larvae | 42.6 | 0.4 | 8.2 | 1 | 0.3 | 9.5 | [ |
|
Adult | 0.043 | 0.021 | — | — | — | — | [ |
|
Postlarvae | 0.025 | 0.178 | 1.026 | — | 0.045 | 1.18 | [ |
|
Larvae | 0.03 | 0.3 | 4.2 | — | — | 4.2 | [ |
|
Adult | 0.25 | — | 0.62 | — | — | 1.30 | [ |
|
Postlarvae | — | 0.83 | — | — | — | 3.31 | [ |
|
Postlarvae | 1.7 | 18.2 | 188 | — | 0.068 | 129.5 | [ |
|
Adult | 0.21 | 0.013 | — | — | — | — | [ |
|
Adult | 0.073 | 7.82 | — | — | — | — | [ |
|
Postlarvae | — | 3.7 | 138 | — | 0.0835 | — | [ |
|
Juvenile | — | — | 98 | 20.1 | 0.38 | — | [ |
|
Juvenile | — | 6.3 | — | 91 | 0.112 | — | [ |
|
Juvenile | 0.80 | — | — | — | 0.82 | — | [ |
|
Postlarvae | — | 5.6 | — | 12.4 | — | — | [ |
|
Postlarvae | 7.3 | 1.12 | >20 | 1.456 | 0.097 | 43 | [ |
|
Postlarvae | 0.31 | 5.6 | — | — | — | 3.6 | [ |
|
Adult | 2.52 | — | 5.88 | — | — | 12.3 | [ |
|
Postlarvae | 0.8204 | — | 7.22 | — | — | — | [ |
|
Postlarvae | — | 2.28 | 5.77–7.28 | — | — | 3.02 | [ |
|
Larvae | — | 3.025 | — | — | — | 4.267 | [ |
|
Juvenile | 2.36 | 17.71 | — | 43.4 | — | — | [ |
|
Postlarvae | 0.0308 | — | — | — | 0.017 | — | [ |
|
Juvenile | — | — | 140 | 31 | 0. 35 | — | [ |
|
Postlarvae | 1.4 | 21.1 | 85.3 | 14.3 | — | 147.9 | [ |
|
Adult | 1.98 | — | 4.61 | — | — | 6.12 | [ |
|
Larvae | 0.2 | 0.3 | — | — | — | 1.8 | [ |
|
Adult | 0.0252 | 0.0131 | 0.5262 | — | — | 1.1898 | [ |
|
Adult | 0.16 | 0.87 | — | — | — | — | [ |
|
Adult | 0.174 | 6.497 | 116.432 | 181.09 | 0.14 | 44.48 | [ |
The median lethal time (LT50) of
ISH showed that
The experimental animal, marine medaka, is suitable for studying the mechanism of hypoosmoregulatory. Studies show that branchial om
Although some toxicological research has been conducted using this small fish species as a model, there is still much to be studied. Fortunately, transcriptome analyses and proteomic approaches, along with new methodologies in
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (21207127, 21277137). The authors thank Qiansheng Huang and Kevin Francesconi for critical discussion and correction of the manuscript.