In Ayurveda, BD has been classified as “rasayana” herb which is said to possess properties like antiaging, reestablishing youth, strengthening life and brain power, and disease prevention, all of which imply that they increase the resistance of the body against any onslaught, in other words, providing hepatoprotection and immunomodulation [
BD has been widely studied for its chemical constituents and therapeutic activities. The roots are the source of a novel class of isoflavonoids known as rotenoids, flavonoids, flavonoid glycosides, xanthones, purine nucleoside, lignans, ecdysteroids, and steroids. Various animal studies and trials have confirmed the presence of activities, for example, immunomodulation, hepatoprotection, antifibrinolysis, anticancer activity, antidiabetic activity, anti-inflammation, and diuresis. In this paper, traditional uses, chemical constituents, and reported pharmacological activities have been summarized to present the chemical and therapeutic potential of this plant. Present review also provides an ethnopharmacological appraisal of an important medicinal herb.
Worldwide distribution of BD.
In Indian context, BD goes by several names due to the variety of languages, that is, Assamese: Ranga Punarnabha; Bengali: Rakta Punarnava; Gujrati: Dholisaturdi, Motosatodo; Hindi: Gadapurna, Lalpunarnava; Kannada: Sanadika, Kommeberu, and Komma; Kashmiri: Vanjula Punarnava; Malayalam: Chuvanna Tazhutawa; Marathi: Ghetuli, Vasuchimuli, Satodimula, Punarnava, and Khaparkhuti; Oriya: Lalapuiruni, Nalipuruni; Punjabi: ltcit (Ial), Khattan; Tamil: Mukurattai (Shihappu); and Telugu: Atikamamidi, Erra galijeru.
However, one of its names in Sanskrit (kathilla, sophaghni, sothaghni, and varsabhu), varshabhu, has given rise to a long standing confusion on identity. As per modern taxonomy, varshabhu is the name for
BD is a good source of nutritional supplements as reported by Miralles and Ujowundu. Miralles et al. reported 15 amino acids (6 essential) in the whole plant and 14 amino acids (7 essential) in the roots along with isopalmitate acetate, behenic acid, arachidic acid (6.3%), and saturated fatty acids (38%) [
BD contains various categories of secondary metabolites, for example, flavonoid glycosides, isoflavonoids (rotenoids), steroids (ecdysteroid), alkaloids, and phenolic and lignan glycosides. Table
Chemical constituents isolated from BD.
Chemical class | Name of compound | Activity reported | Plant part | Reference |
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Phenolic |
Punarnavoside | Antifibrinolytic | Roots | [ |
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C-Methyl flavone |
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* | Roots | [ |
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Isoflavone | 2′-O-Methyl abronisoflavone | * | * | [ |
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Flavonol | Quercetin, kaempferol | * | Leaves | [ |
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Flavonoid |
3,4-Dihydroxy-5-methoxycinnamoyl |
* | Leaves | [ |
Quercetin 3-O-rhamnosyl (1→6) |
* | Leaves | ” | |
Eupalitin 3-O-galactosyl (1→2) glucoside | * | |||
Kaempferol 3-O-robinobioside | * | Leaves | ” | |
Eupalitin-3- |
* | Leaves | ||
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Phenolic acid |
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* | Roots | ” |
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Rotenoids | Boeravinones A, B, C, D, E, F | * | Roots | [ |
Boeravinones G, H | Anticancer, spasmolytic | Roots | [ | |
Boeravinones I, J | * | Roots | [ | |
9-O-Methyl-10-hydroxy coccineone E | * | Roots |
[ | |
Diffusarotenoid | * | Roots | [ | |
6-O-Demethyl-boeravinone H | * | Roots |
[ | |
10-Demethyl boeravinone C | * | Roots | ” | |
Coccineones E, B | * | Roots | ” | |
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Xanthone | Boerhavine | * | Roots | [ |
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Lignan | Liriodendrin |
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Roots | [ |
Syringaresinol mono- |
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Roots | ” | |
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Purine nucleoside | Hypoxanthine-9- |
Cardiotonic | Roots | [ |
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Sterol | Boerhavisterol | * | Roots | [ |
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Sterol ester | Boeravilanostenyl benzoate | * | Roots | ” |
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Ecdysteroid |
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Increases protein synthesis, antidepressant, antistress and immunomodulation, antihyperglycemic, hepatoprotective | Roots | [ |
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Fatty acid | Triacont-24-en-1-oic acid | * | Roots | ” |
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Hydrocarbons | Boeradiffusene | * | Roots | [ |
Substitution pattern in rotenoids isolated from BD.
S. No. | Name | R1 | R2 | R3 | R4 | R5 | R6 |
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Dehydrorotenoid | |||||||
1 | Boeravinone A | H | H | OCH3 | H | OH | CH3 |
2 | Boeravinone B | H | H | OH | H | OH | CH3 |
3 | Boeravinone D | OH | H | OCH3 | H | OH | CH3 |
4 | Boeravinone E | OH | H | OH | H | OH | CH3 |
5 | Boeravinone F | OH | H | O | H | OH | CH3 |
6 | Boeravinone G | H | OH | OCH3 | H | OCH3 | H |
7 | Boeravinone H | H | OH | OCH3 | H | OCH3 | CH3 |
8 | Boeravinone I | H | H | OH | OH | OCH3 | CH3 |
9 | 9-O-Methyl-10-hydroxy coccineone E | H | H | OH | H | OCH3 | OH |
10 | Diffusarotenoid | H | OH | OCOC4H9 | H | OH | CH3 |
11 | 6-O-Demethyl |
H | OH | OH | H | OCH3 | CH3 |
12 | Coccineone B | H | H | OH | H | OH | H |
13 | Boeravinone M | H | OH | OH | H | OCH3 | H |
14 | Boeravinone P | H | H | OCH3 | H | OH | H |
15 | Boeravinone Q | H | H | OCH3 | OCH3 | OH | CH3 |
16 | Boeravinone R | H | H | OH | OCH3 | OH | CH3 |
17 | Boeravinone S | OH | H | OH | H | OH | H |
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12a-Hydroxy rotenoids | |||||||
1 | Boeravinone C | H | OH | H | H | OH | CH3 |
2 | 10-Demethyl boeravinone C | H | OH | H | H | OCH3 | H |
3 | Coccineone E | H | H | H | H | OCH3 | OCH3 |
Major chemical constituents isolated from BD.
Categories of rotenoids.
Prototype compound of rotenoid category and chemical marker of BD.
As stated earlier, BD is an important herbal constituent of various ayurvedic formulations. It has been used in various formulations meant for inflammation, jaundice, asthma, rheumatism, nephrological disorders, ascites, anemia, and gynecological disorders. Table
Ayurvedic formulations containing BD as main ingredient.
S. No. | Name of formulation | Uses | Reference |
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Ayurvedic formulations | |||
1 | Punarnavadyarishta | Heart disease, anaemia, inflammation, splenomegaly, vertigo, hard stools, chronic obstructive jaundice/chlorosis/advanced stage of jaundice, abdominal lump, fistula-in-ano, cough, dyspnoea/asthma, malabsorption syndrome, diseases of skin, and itching | (Bhaisajyaratnavali, Sotharogadhikara: 192–196) |
2 | Punarnava guggulu | Gout, inguinoscrotal swellings, sciatica, pain in calves-thighs-back-sacral and bladder region, and rheumatism | (Bharat Bhaishajya Ratnakar, Trtiya bhaga: 4012) |
3 | Punarnavasava | Dyspepsia, abdominal lump, diseases of abdomen/enlargement of abdomen, inflammation, disorder of spleen and liver, and all types of disorders with difficult prognosis | (Bhaisajyaratnavali, Sotharogadhikara: 197–201) |
4 | Punarnavadi kvatha curna | Generalized tremors, ascites, cough, colicky pain, dyspnea/asthma, and anaemia | (Bhaisajyaratnavali, |
5 | Punarnavastaka kvatha curna | Ascites, anasarca, cough, dyspnea/asthma, and colicky pain | (Chakradatta, Sothacikitsa: 10) |
6 | Punarnavadi mandura | Anaemia, malabsorption syndrome, inflammation, splenic disease, intermittent fever, haemorrhoids, diseases of skin, and helminthiasis/worm infestation | (Carakasamhit, Cikitsasthana, Adhyaya 16: 93–95) |
7 | Sukumara ghrita | Constipation, diseases of abdomen/enlargement of abdomen, abdominal lump, splenic disease, abscess, edema, pain in female genital tract, haemorrhoids, inguinoscrotal swellings, diseases due to vata dosha, and gout | (Sahasrayoga, Ghrtaprakarana: 4) |
6 | Maha Narayan Taila | Facial palsy, deafness, paraplegia, tremors, neck rigidity/torticollis, lock jaw, wasting of one limb, oligospermia, infertility, headache, glossal palsy, dental pain, mania/psychosis, hump-back/kyphosis, fever, senility/progeriasis, emaciation, tendon tear, and bone fracture | (Bhaisajyaratnavali, Vatavyadhyadhikara: 151–162) |
9 | Sothaghna Lepa | All types of inflammation | (Sarngadharasamhita, Uttarakhanda, Adhyaya 11: 3) |
10 | Varuni | Rhinitis and pain | [ |
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Siddha formulation | |||
1 | Talakacenturam | Diseases due to heat/pitta humour, wheezing, jaundice, arthritis/arthralgia, itching, oliguria/anuria, ascites and diseases due to vāta humour | (Anonymous, 2008) |
Tables
Ethnopharmacological reports of uses of BD in various parts of India.
S. No. | Disease/organ involved | Plant part/formulation/dose | Method | Geographical area/location | Reference |
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1 | Male reproductive system | Root/15 g powder with 100 mL cow milk twice daily |
Interview with Vaidyas | Uttar Pradesh |
[ |
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2 | Female reproductive system | Root/decoction | Interview with elderly women | Uttar Pradesh | [ |
Root/2 g paste with cow’s milk | Questionnaire, survey with traditional practitioners | Churu district; Rajasthan | [ | ||
Plant/powder, twice a day for one month | Discussion with elderly women and tribal practitioners | Warli tribe of Maharashtra | [ | ||
Root/paste | Survey among aborigine peoples | Tribals of Maharashtra | [ | ||
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3 | Hepatic system/Jaundice | Root/decoction | Field surveys | Tribe of Dehradun | [ |
Leaves/* | Field surveys | Tribe of Madhya Pradesh | [ | ||
Root/decoction | Ethnobotanical survey with local Vaidya | Rewa, Madhya Pradesh | [ | ||
Whole plant/* | Tribal physician | Tribes of Central India | [ | ||
Leaves/extract | Interview with men and women between 20 and 80 years | Tribes of Kerala | [ | ||
Root/decoction | Field survey | Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu | [ | ||
Root/* | Questionnaire, interviews, and discussions with tribes | Tamil Nadu | [ | ||
*/* | Field trips and local villagers | Assam | [ | ||
Whole plant/infusion; orally, on empty stomach | Interviews with the traditional practitioners | Assam | [ | ||
Leaves/juice, orally twice daily | Enlisting plants | Tribes of Meghalaya | [ | ||
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4 |
Diuretic/ |
Root/decoction, daily for one month | Survey with local healers and herbalists, priests, hakims, and Vaidyas | Muzaffarnagar district, Uttar Pradesh | [ |
Leaves/* | Field survey | Tribes of Madhya Pradesh | [ | ||
Whole plant/* | Tribal physicians | Tribes of Central India | [ | ||
Root/* | Interviews with local villagers and herbalists | Tribes of Maharashtra | Petkar, 2002 | ||
Whole plant/decoction | Field trips and interview with the tribal | Tribes of Northeast Gujarat | Bhat, 2002 | ||
Root or tender shoots/decoction, One teaspoonful twice daily | 10-year ethnobotanical field survey | Tribes of Tamil Nadu | [ | ||
Leaves/decoction | Interviews with local Vaidyas | Tamil Nadu | [ | ||
Whole plant/* | Interviews with local people, Vaidyas | Karnataka | [ | ||
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5 | Wound healing | Root/* | Interviews with women having knowledge of medicinal plants | Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal | [ |
Leaves/paste | Interviews with tribal medicine men | Tribes of Madhya Pradesh | [ | ||
Leaves/paste | Field surveys | Tribes of Tamil Nadu | [ | ||
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6 | Respiratory system | Plant/infusion | Field surveys | Tribes of Dehradun | [ |
Root/* | * | Chhattisgarh | [ | ||
Whole plant/decoction (15–20 mL) twice a day | Field trips and interview with the tribal | Maharashtra | [ | ||
Root/powder with equal amount of sugar candy | Questionnaire and surveys with traditional healers and field survey | Orissa | [ | ||
Whole plant/* | Interviews with local people, Vaidyas | Karnataka | [ | ||
Root/juice mixed with crushed chillies, taken orally twice daily | Enlisting plants | Tribes of Meghalaya | [ | ||
Root/juice, 15 mL taken twice a day orally | Interviews with tribal and nontribal inhabitants and with herbalists | Tribes of Andhra Pradesh | [ | ||
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7 |
Insect/scorpion/ |
Leaves/whole leaves chewed | 5-year survey with medicine men, priests | Rajsthan | [ |
Leaves/* | Ethnobotanical survey with local |
Rewa, Madhya Pradesh | [ | ||
Plant/paste with black pepper, taken orally and applied locally | Questionnaire survey with traditional healers | Orissa | [ | ||
Leaves/juice; 2-3 times applied locally and taken orally for 7 days | Interview with traditional healer | Assam | [ | ||
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8 | Ophthalmia | Leaves/extract | Field surveys | Tribes of Dehradun | [ |
Root and leaves/ash | Questionnaire survey with rural folk | Rajsthan | [ | ||
Root/decoction | Ethnobotanical survey with local |
Rewa, Madhya Pradesh | [ | ||
Root/* | * | Chhattisgarh | [ | ||
Root/paste | Ethnomedicinal survey among aborigine peoples | Maharashtra | [ | ||
Leaves/juice | Participatory rural appraisal and questionnaire survey | Kerala | [ | ||
Leaves/juice with cow milk is applied on eyelids | Questionnaire survey with traditional healers | Orissa | [ | ||
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9 | Skin disorders | Leaves/powder |
Questionnaire survey with experienced traditional practitioners | Rajsthan | [ |
Root bark/paste | Elderly persons | Tamil Nadu | [ | ||
Whole plant/* | Tribal physician | Tribals of Central India | [ | ||
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10 | Rheumatism | Leaves boiled with rice, garlic, and water are rubbed on the body | Questionnaire survey with experienced traditional practitioners | Rajsthan | [ |
Root/decoction | Field survey | Kanyakumari | [ | ||
Leaves/decoction | Interviews with local Vaidyas | Tamil Nadu | [ | ||
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11 | Cardiovascular system | Whole plant/* | Interviews with local people, Vaidyas | Karnataka | [ |
Leaves/* | Interviews using unstructured questionnaire | Kerala/Western Ghats | [ | ||
Leaves/cooked as a curry | Enlisting plants | Tribals of Meghalaya | [ | ||
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12 |
Inflammation/ |
Root/decoction | Ethnomedicinal survey among aborigine peoples | Tribes of Maharashtra | [ |
Root decoction (along with other herbs) | Questionnaires among the tribal practitioners | Tribes of Tamil Nadu | [ | ||
Leaves/juice with black pepper, taken orally on empty stomach, twice a day for 7 days | Questionnaire, survey with traditional healers | Orissa | [ | ||
Leaves/juice; taken orally 2-3 times and applied locally | Interview with traditional healer | Assam | [ | ||
Leaves/juice, thrice a day | Field survey | Uttaranchal | [ |
Ethnopharmacological reports of uses of BD in various parts of the world.
S. No. | Location | Plant part and formulation | Uses | Reference |
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1 | Northeastern Brazil | Sitting baths made with tea from the bark | Problems of genitourinary system in females and inflammations | [ |
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2 | Nigeria | Whole plant | Treatment of threatened miscarriage |
[ |
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3 | Tropical Africa | Boiled roots | Ulcers, abscesses, and Guinea worm disease | [ |
Boiled roots and leaves | Expectorant and febrifuge and, in large doses, emetic | ” | ||
Decoction of aerial parts | Gastrointestinal pains, convulsions, intestinal worms, and regulation of menstruation | ” | ||
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4 | Ghana | Root decoction | Anaemia, heart troubles, palpitations, and jaundice and applied externally to yaws | [ |
Powdered root with butter or oil | Abdominal tumours | ” | ||
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5 | Congo | Root sap is rubbed on the neck and throat in water or palm oil or in a decoction | Mumps, laryngitis, and burns, |
[ |
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6 | Democratic Republic of Congo | Leaf decoction | Gonorrhoea and pain | [ |
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7 | Angola | Root decoction | Jaundice | [ |
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8 | Berg Damara people, Namibia | Chew or boil the root | Gastroenteritic problems | [ |
Damara people, Namibia | Tea made from the root | Prolapsed uterus | ” | |
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9 | Buner District, NWFP, Pakistan | Bandage of roots crushed in boiled milk used externally | Ulcers/interviews with the local inhabitants, selected informants, the herbalists “Hakims,” and sellers” pansaris’ | [ |
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10 | Chakma, Arma, and Tripura community, Chittagong Hill tracts, Bangladesh | Whole plant, juice, and powder | Blood purification, urinary |
[ |
” | Whole plant | Pulmonary tuberculosis | ” | |
” | Plant powder | Abdominal tumor, dysentery, and renal diseases | ” | |
” | Flowers and seeds | Contraceptives | ” | |
” | Roots | Jaundice, anemia, gonorrhea, blood purification, and as stimulant | ” |
BD has been said to possess adaptogenic effects; however the term adaptogen includes a myriad of activities. The term actually infers an overall increase in adaptability of an organism against any type of stress, namely, physical, chemical, or biological. This term can be loosely correlated with the rasayana concept of Ayurveda. Immunomodulation is an important activity of rasayana herbs. Mungantiwar and Sumantha studied the immunomodulation but the activity has been ascribed to crude or semipurified alkaloidal extract. Syringaresinol mono-
Above reports indicate the immunosuppression by BD; however both reports are from different plant parts. The roots have been the source of two documented immunostimulants, syringaresinol mono-
Mehrotra and coworkers analyzed the effect of 95% ethanolic root extract on T cell mitogen PHA, Con-A, and PPD antigen-stimulated proliferation of human PBMC. It inhibited PBMC proliferation induced by all above stimulators and human mixed lymphocyte culture. The extract showed the inhibition of various cell lines (mouse and human) with special mention of lymphoma and leukemic cells [
Ahmed-Belkacem and coworkers isolated two rotenoids (boeravinones G and H) from BD roots and found them potential efflux inhibitors for breast cancer resistance protein (ABCG2). The authors also proposed a correlation between structure and activity of compounds having BCRP inhibitory activity [
Chopra and coworkers performed bioassay guided fractionation of 95% ethanolic extract of BD root and have observed 30% cell death in HeLa cell line (300
S. Sreeja and coworkers analyzed antiproliferative and antiestrogenic potential of methanolic extract of whole plant of BD in MCF-7 cell line and showed reduction in cell viability (46.8%) in 48 h at 320
Manu and coworkers estimated the protection provided by 70% aq. methanolic extract of the whole plant (20 mg/kg, i.p.) in bone marrow and intestine of mice (dosed sublethally by 600 rads in single dose). Total WBC count was reduced by 46.66% in the extract treated group in comparison to 80% in the control group on day 9 after radiation exposure. In the presence of BD extract the effect of radiation on bone marrow cellularity can be seen by only 46% reduction in cellularity compared with 68% reduction in radiation alone. An interesting fact is that, on the 11th day, the count of bone marrow cellularity surpassed the initial value by 9.2%. The elevated level of serum and liver LAP, GPT, and lipid peroxidation after radiation exposure was normalized in the extract treated group [
An important indication of BD in traditional medicine is abdominal tumor. Various studies (
Radiotherapy holds an important stake in cancer treatment in spite of the major adverse effect of myelosuppression or immunosuppression which may result in increased susceptibility to infection during the course of cancer treatment. There are several approaches to maintain the immunity level of the cancer patient to improve the overall condition. Herbal formulations containing plant derived immunomodulators might be a considerable approach in this regard. BD offers a multiple target regimen in cancer therapy. It has anticancer, immunomodulatory, and radioprotective activity. So it could be proven to be a beneficial supplement in the cancer therapy.
BD leaves chloroform extract has shown dose-dependent hypoglycemia in experimentally diabetic rats. Glibenclamide (25
The author found no traditional or ethnobotanical reports of the antidiabetic activity in BD plant and the formulations containing BD as an ingredient; however the above studies clearly indicate the antihyperglycemic potential of BD. Only one proprietary formulation from Unani-Tibb system (Glucostop) has been indicated in the management of diabetes.
Barthwal and Srivastava compared antifibrinolytic agents (
Traditional systems of medicines in India and other parts of the world endorse the use of BD roots in gynecological disorders, for example, abortion, prolapsed uterus, pain in female genital tract, regulation of menstruation, and so forth. Anemia is an easily predictable outcome of most of the gynecological disorders which further compromise the health of females. This set of elaborated studies on the effect of BD extract on menstrual parameters in IUD-fitted monkeys and isolation of phenolic glycoside, punarnavoside, having an antifibrinolytic activity explain its use in diverse gynecological disorders.
Inflammation is an important use of BD. This plant is also called sothaghni which means that who alleviate inflammation. Almost all the ayurvedic formulations listed in Table
Singh and coworkers studied the effect of aqueous ethanolic extract on
Wahi and coworkers isolated alkaloid punarnavine and water soluble base choline from BD roots and evaluated them for effects on frogs’ heart, frogs’ skeletal muscle (rectus abdominis), and diuresis. The authors found significant diuresis after administration of the alkaloid (5 mg/100 g) in rats [
Sathyapriya and coworkers evaluated the effect of the aqueous extract of the whole plant of BD on osmotic fragility in erythrocyte from polycystic ESRD patients. It significantly decreased the osmotic fragility in erythrocyte from polycystic ESRD patients. The authors suggested it for a property of altering the erythrocyte membrane composition or a direct/indirect effect on the intracellular sodium and alleviation of oxidative stress [
Pareta et al. [
Yasir et al. [
BD is a well-known diuretic and renoprotective plant in the traditional system of medicine. Studies approving diuretic and kidney stone dissolving properties of BD extracts along with the isolation of a diuretic alkaloid, punarnavine, describe the use of BD in urinary disorders. Formulations containing BD as the main ingredient are routinely used in ascites, anasarca, dropsy, kidney troubles, urinary stones, and swelling of the legs. In case of ascites, cirrhosis is the major cause which is followed by congestive heart failure. Diuretics are the first line of therapy in such cases because all of these diseases involve abnormalities in fluid dynamics in the body; however hepatoprotective activity of BD would be an added benefit in such a case. The use of BD could also be beneficial in congestive heart failure by means of decreasing cardiac load and ACE inhibitor activity.
Chandan and coworkers evaluated the 50% aqueous ethanolic extract of BD whole plant given orally for its hepatoprotective activity in carbon tetrachloride induced hepatotoxicity in rats. The extract significantly decreased CCl4 induced increase in hexobarbitone sleeping time from 225 min to 200 min. It also lowers the SGPT level from 260
Rawat and coworkers studied the effect of various factors for the hepatoprotection by BD extract and found that aqueous extract (2 mL/Kg) of 1–3 cm diameter roots from May displayed significant protection for serum parameters, that is, GOT (82.55%), GPT (74.16%), and ALP (51.47%), but not GLDH and bilirubin in thioacetamide-induced hepatotoxicity. It has been noted in this study that the roots, which were thin, showed maximum protection of serum parameters [
Devaki and coworkers studied the effect of ethanolic extract of BD on tissue defense system against ethanol-induced hepatic injury in rats. The administration of BD extract (150 mg/kg/day for 30 days, orally) reversed the increase in the levels of lipid peroxides and increased the activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione-S-transferase and reduced glutathione levels [
Olaleye and coworkers evaluated the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of fresh leaves for antioxidant components and activity by
Liver is a vital organ of the body and is the first line of defence against xenobiotics. That is why it is targeted by harmful and toxic effects of chemicals. It prepares the body for any onslaught. A good health depends on the health of liver. Jaundice is a disease for which BD has been constantly used either in traditional system of medicine or in ethnopharmacological reports. To prove the efficacy of BD in hepatic disorders and against various hepatotoxins, several workers have evaluated its hepatoprotective potential against different types of toxins. In each and every study the hepatoprotection provided by BD is proved.
Umamaheswari and coworkers studied the effect of various extracts prepared from BD roots against Gram-positive (
Kant and coworkers established the effectiveness of BD as an adjuvant to chemotherapy in clinical trials conducted on 50 patients newly diagnosed with pulmonary tuberculosis. The clinical recovery rate was faster in BD treated group than in the control. At the end of the 4-week follow-up, 80% of the patients were relieved of cough compared to only 52% in the control group. Similarly, 88% of the patients in the treated group were afebrile in 4 weeks compared to 60% of control. Fever relief was observed in 6 weeks in comparison to 8 weeks in the control groups, respectively. The mean weight gain in the treated group was higher than that in the control group. The rate of sputum conversion was significantly faster in the treated group than in the control group [
The rationale for studying the effects on selected microorganisms lies in their potential for causing human diseases. Human pathogenic bacteria cause different types of diseases with varying degree of morbidity and mortality; for example,
Priyadarsini and coworkers have shown dose-dependent radical quenching and reducing power of BD extract against BHA. The IC50 of BD extract (49.95 g/mL) was lower than that of BHA (53.27
Rachh and coworkers evaluated ethanolic and methanolic extracts of the dried root powder for antioxidant activity. The extract showed good
Free radicals contain at least one unpaired electron and can exist independently despite of being highly reactive. Free radicals containing oxygen are also called reactive oxygen species (ROS) and have two unpaired electrons. When the free radicals react with a surrounding entity, they generate a new free radical initiating a chain reaction. Inside the physiological system, free radicals are controlled by antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase).
Tumor formation (initiation and promotion) is linked with chromosomal defects and regulation of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. It might be probable that endogenous free radicals reactions may cause tumor formation as the case with ionizing radiation.
There is significant connection between fats and oils consumption and death rates from leukaemia and malignant neoplasia which may be due to greater lipid peroxidation [
BD has been ascribed with various activities which implies the antioxidant activity. The prominent examples are anticancer, hepatoprotective, immunosuppressive, and antidiabetic activities. Moreover it has been characterized as rasayana herb in Ayurveda. All these facts substantiate its use as a rejuvenator and also approve its Sanskrit name “punarnava” which means rejuvenated.
Involuntary muscle spasm is the symptom of various muscle disorders. Common examples include colic, tremors, neck rigidity/torticollis, pain in female genital tract, threatened miscarriages, palsy/glossal palsy, and paraplegia. Antispasmodics/spasmolytics offer a symptomatic relief in such conditions. The above study demonstrates the effectiveness of BD in spasms caused by different spasmogens and substantiates the use of BD in the above conditions.
BD extracts have several documented activities. To name a few there are diuretic, vasodilatory, immunomodulatory, ACE inhibitory, and anticonvulsant activities. So it can be devised that the products containing BD as main ingredient can have potential for interaction with medications having similar or opposing activities. It is of therapeutic consideration that diuresis, vasodilation, and ACE inhibition are routinely used in cardiac complications and hypertensive crisis and in such cases a delicate balance has to be maintained for patients survival. So it could be advised that the persons with the above kind of cardiac complications should take the formulations containing BD under medical supervision. BD extracts have shown an anticonvulsant activity so it can potentiate the actions of anxiolytics especially benzodiazepines and barbiturates.
In another study quercetin has shown alteration in the bioavailability of tamoxifen upon coadministration. The absolute bioavailability of tamoxifen has been increased from 20% to 60% when administered with 2.5 and 7.5 mg/kg quercetin [
BD is a plant of repute in traditional as well as ethnobotanical systems of medicine in various parts of world. It contains diverse chemical compounds which have shown therapeutic activities, for example, diuresis, anticancer, anti-inflammation, hepatoprotection, and immunomodulation. However, it still has not been able to claim its position in herbal market. In the current scenario of plant based medicinal products, BD can prove to be an effective and affordable commodity for hepatoprotection, diuresis, and immunomodulation. It is also a source of structurally novel rotenoid compounds which can show possibilities to design novel semisynthetic compounds for newer indications.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.