Intestinal parasites are found in the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and other animals [
In Ethiopia, 81 million people live in areas vulnerable to intestinal parasites, among which 25.3 million are school children (SC) [
IPIs are regarded as serious public health problems as they can cause iron deficiency anemia, growth retardation in children, and other physical and mental health conditions [
Age is one of the risk factors for infection by intestinal parasites. School children are at a high risk of intestinal parasite infection. Poor hygiene, low immune status, overcrowding, close contact with soil and with each other, lack of latrine, and inadequate provision of safe water in schools are associated risk factors for IPIs [
According to clinical reports from a health center in Dera district (Northwest Ethiopia), intestinal infections are among the top reasons why people visit health facilities (Dera Woreda Health Office Annual Report, 2019). Among these, children are the dominant group infected by IPIs. However, there was no previous study conducted on the prevalence and associated risk factors of IPIs among school children in the current study area. Therefore, the present study aimed to assess the prevalence of IPIs and their risk factors among school children in the primary schools of Dera district, Northwest Ethiopia.
This study was carried out in five primary schools from Dera district, South Gondar Zone, Amhara region, Northwest Ethiopia (Figure
Location map of the study area.
There are 11 health centers and 36 health posts in the district. Health posts are assigned to implement the health extension program. Health Extension Workers (HEWs) spend 50% of their time visiting families in their homes and performing outreach activities in the community. HEWs are well-trained to provide first aid; treat diseases like malaria, dysentery, IPIs, and other ailments; and refer complicated cases to the nearest health center [
A school-based cross-sectional study was conducted from December 2019 to February 2020 to determine the prevalence of IPIs and associated risk factors among primary school students of Dera district, Northwest Ethiopia.
The study population was all students enrolled in the five selected primary schools (from grades 1 to 8) 2019/2020 academic year. The number of students in each school was as follows: Gibtsawit (761), Enbosa Maseria (685), Wagira (752), Mirafe Mariam (1318), and Korata (1277), which gives the total number of 4793 (2455 males, 2338 females).
The sample size was determined using the single population formula
The researchers proportionally selected 384 study participants from the five schools. The sample distribution per each school was Gibtsawit (61), Korata (102), Wagira (60), Mirafe Mariam (106), and Enbosa Maseria (55).
The five target schools were randomly selected from the 114 schools in the Dera district and the 384 students were selected using a simple random sampling method. The alphabetically arranged list of all students from the five schools (grades 1–8) served as a sampling frame. The respondents were grouped into three age categories 6 to 11 years (middle childhood), 12 to 18 years (early adolescence), and 19 to 21 years (late adolescence) [
Trained data collectors collected the information (sociodemographic characteristics, child behavioral characteristics, and past medical history) of every participant using interviews of structured questionnaires first developed in Amharic language and translated back to English while encoding the data. Data collectors also made clarifications of ambiguous questionnaires to children. The questionnaires were pretested and validated. The data collectors also checked the fingernail cleanness and the shoe-wearing habit of each student. The criteria for clean hands were properly trimmed fingernails, physically clean hands during observation, and handwashing habits after touching any dirt material and before eating. The data collectors considered the students knowledgeable about IPIs if they correctly mentioned at least two IPIs with their etiologic agents, modes of transmission, and prevention methods.
Formed and semi-formed fresh stool samples were used for parasitological analysis. The children were trained on how to collect the stool samples hygienically and advised to bring their own 3 to 5 g fresh stools in labeled collection cups along with applicator sticks. Parents were engaged for children aged 6–11.
Stool samples were examined under wet-mount and formol-ether concentration techniques. A portion of each of the stool samples was processed and examined microscopically using direct wet-mount and formol-ether concentration techniques based on the procedures in WHO guidelines [
A direct wet-mount technique was processed by conventional iodine. About 2 g of each stool sample was emulsified with 3–4 ml normal saline (0.85% NaCl solution). Then a drop of the emulsified sample was placed on a clean microscopic glass slide to observe the presence of trophozoites under the light microscope at 10X and 40X. Then, a few drops of iodine solution were added to samples on glass slides and were covered with a coverslip. The presence of IPIs larvae, ova, and cysts was observed under the light microscope at 10X and 40X magnifications [
A portion of each stool sample was used for the detection of parasitic ova and protozoan cysts using the formol-ether concentration technique based on the WHO guideline [
Statistical package for social science (SPSS) version 25.0 (IBM SPSS Statistics) was used to analyze the collected data. Chi-square (
Before conducting the investigation, the investigator obtained ethical clearance from the Ethical Committee of Science College, Bahir Dar University (
The questionnaire was first pretested using thirty-five individuals outside the study population in other schools to avoid all ambiguities. All ambiguities were corrected before the questionnaires were administered to the actual study participants (
Table
Sociodemographic characteristics of students (
Sociodemographic variable | Categories | Frequency | Percent |
---|---|---|---|
Gibtsawit Primary School | 60 | 15.7 | |
Enbosa Maseria | 50 | 13.1 | |
Wagira | 58 | 15.2 | |
Mirafe Mariam | 109 | 28.5 | |
Korata Primary School | 105 | 27.5 | |
Male | 191 | 50 | |
Female | 191 | 50 | |
6–11 | 123 | 32.2 | |
12–18 | 254 | 66.5 | |
19–21 | 5 | 1.3 | |
1–4 | 162 | 42.4 | |
5–8 | 220 | 57.6 | |
Farmer | 379 | 99.2 | |
Merchant | 0 | 0 | |
Government employee | 3 | 0.8 | |
Farmer | 311 | 81.4 | |
Merchant | 1 | 0.3 | |
Government employee | 3 | 0.8 | |
Housewife | 67 | 17.5 | |
Illiterate | 320 | 83.8 | |
Primary school | 14 | 3.7 | |
High school | 2 | 0.5 | |
Above high school | 3 | 0.8 | |
Adult education | 43 | 11.3 | |
Illiterate | 197 | 51.6 | |
Primary school | 32 | 8.4 | |
High school | 2 | 0.5 | |
Above high school | 5 | 1.3 | |
Adult education | 146 | 38.2 | |
No | 230 | 60.2 | |
Yes | 152 | 39.8 | |
Spring | 52 | 13.6 | |
River | 30 | 7.9 | |
Well | 177 | 46.3 | |
Hand-dug well | 123 | 32.2 | |
Clean | 133 | 34.8 | |
Not clean | 249 | 65.2 | |
Yes | 295 | 77.2 | |
No | 87 | 22.8 | |
≤5 | 69 | 18.1 | |
>5 | 313 | 81.9 | |
No | 14 | 3.7 | |
Yes | 368 | 96.3 | |
No | 194 | 50.8 | |
Yes | 188 | 49.2 |
Of the 382 students examined for IPIs, 238 (62.3%; 95% CI: 54.6, 70.7) were positive for one or more IPIs. The gender distribution of IPI positives was 118 (61.8%; 95% CI: 51.14, 73.98) males and 120 (62.8%; 95% CI: 52.09, 75.13) females. The single, double, and triple IPIs were (136, 35.6%; 95% CI: 29.9, 42.11), (98, 25.7%; 95% CI: 20.83, 31.26), and (4, 1.05%; 95% CI: 0.29, 2.68), respectively. Nine parasites were detected using wet-mount and formol-ether concentration techniques (Table
The distribution of intestinal parasite infestation among school students (
Parasite | Frequency | Gender | Age group | School | Grade | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Female ( | Male ( | 6–11 ( | 12–18 ( | 19–21 ( | Gib. ( | Enb. ( | Wag. ( | Mir. ( | Kor. ( | 1–4 ( | 5–8 ( | ||
+# (%) | +# (%) | +# (%) | +# (%) | +# (%) | +# (%) | +# (%) | +# (%) | +# (%) | +# (%) | +# (%) | +# (%) | +# (%) | |
Protozoa | 126 (33) | 65 (34.03) | 61 (31.93) | 45 (36.6) | 81 (31.9) | — | 18 (30) | 15 (30) | 15 (25.9) | 36 (33.0) | 42 (40) | 57 (35.2) | 69 (31.4) |
113 (29.6) | 59 (30.9) | 54 (28.3) | 41 (33.3) | 72 (28.3) | — | 18 (30) | 15 (30) | 15 (25.9) | 28 (25.7) | 37 (35.2) | 52 (32.1) | 61 (27.7) | |
20 (5.2) | 8 (4.2) | 12 (6.3) | 6 (4.9) | 14 (5.5) | — | 0 | 0 | 0 | 11 (10.1) | 9 (8.6) | 7 (4.3) | 13 (5.9) | |
Helminths | 171 (44.8) | 89 (46.6) | 82 (42.9) | 57 (46.3) | 112 (44.1) | 2 (40) | 28 (46.7) | 17 (34) | 26 (44.8) | 49 (45) | 51 (48.6) | 80 (49.4) | 91 (41.4) |
43 (11.3) | 19 (9.9) | 24 (12.6) | 17 (13.8) | 26 (10.2) | — | 10 (16.7) | 3 (6) | 9 (15.5) | 7 (6.4) | 14 (13.4) | 22 (13.6) | 21 (9.5) | |
16 (4.2) | 9 (4.7) | 7 (3.7) | 7 (5.7) | 9 (3.5) | — | 5 (8.3) | 0 | 3 (5.2) | 5 (4.6) | 3 (2.9) | 9 (5.6) | 7 (3.2) | |
35 (9.2) | 24 (12.6) | 11 (5.8) | 13 (10.6) | 22 (8.7) | — | 0 | 0 | 0 | 21 (19.3) | 14 (13.3) | 20 (12.34) | 15 (6.8) | |
83 (21.7) | 42 (22) | 41 (21.5) | 28 (22.8) | 54 (21.3) | 1 (20) | 20 (33.3) | 11 (22) | 18 (31) | 16 (14.7) | 18 (17.1) | 40 (24.7) | 43 (19.5) | |
16 (4.2) | 9 (4.7) | 7 (3.7) | 3 (2.4) | 12 (4.7) | 1 (20) | 1 (1.7) | 0 | 0 | 9 (8.3) | 6 (5.7) | 6 (3.7) | 10 (4.5) | |
2 (0.5) | 1 (0.5) | 1 (0.5) | — | 2 (0.8) | — | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 (1.9) | 0 (0) | 2 (0.91) | |
16 (4.2) | 6 (3.1) | 10 (5.2) | 2 (1.6) | 14 (5.5) | — | 1 (1.7) | 5 (10) | 0 | 6 (5.5) | 4 (3.8) | 5 (3.1) | 11 (5) | |
Total (any parasite) | 238 (62.3) | 120 (62.8) | 118 (61.8) | 78 (63.4) | 158 (62.2) | 2 (40) | 35 (58.3) | 24 (48) | 34 (58.6) | 67 (61.5) | 78 (74.3) | 106 (65.4) | 132 (60) |
Gib. = Gibtsawit Primary School, Enb. = Enbosa Maseria Primary School, Wag. = Wagira Primary School, Mir. = Mirafe Mariam Primary School, and Kor. = Korata Primary School, + = positive, # = number, and (%) = percentage in brackets.
The most important risk factors for IPIs among primary school children in the Dera district were identified using univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses (MLRA) (Table
Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis of potential risk factors associated with parasitic infection among school children in Dera district, Northwest Ethiopia, 2019/2020.
Risk factors | Categories | IPIs | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total no. (%) | Negative no. (%) | Positive no. (%) | COR, 95% CI | AOR, 95% CI | ||||
Gibtsawit Primary School | 60 (15.7) | 25 (41.7) | 35 (58.3) | 1.52 (0.712, 3.23) | 0.024 | 1.35 (0.602, 3.028) | 0.11 | |
Enbosa Maseria Primary School | 50 (13.1) | 26 (52) | 24 (48) | 1 | 1 | |||
Wagira Primary School | 58 (15.2) | 24 (41.4) | 34 (58.6) | 1.535 (0.716, 3.289) | 0.112 (0.012, 1.1) | |||
Mirafe Mariam Primary School | 109 (28.5) | 42 (38.5) | 67 (61.5) | 1.73 (0.9, 3.4) | 0.096 (0.01, 0.8) | |||
Korata Primary School | 105 (27.5) | 27 (25.7) | 78 (74.3) | 3.13 (1.544, 6.344) | — | |||
≤5 | 69 (18.1) | 34 (49.3) | 35 (50.7) | 1 | 0.030 | 1 | 0.049 | |
>5 | 313 (81.9) | 110 (35.1) | 203 (64.9) | 1.8 (1.1, 3.03) | 1.8 (1.004, 3.13) | |||
Burry and firing | 119 (31.2) | 60 (50.4) | 59 (49.6) | 1 | 0.001 | 1 | 0.011 | |
Open field | 263 (68.8) | 84 (31.9) | 179 (68.1) | 2.167 (1.39, 3.375) | 15.88 (1.91, 132.1) | |||
Yes | 299 (78.3) | 100 (33.9) | 199 (67.5) | 2.245 (1.371, 3.68) | 0.001 | 1.8 (1.1, 3.2) | 0.027 | |
No | 83 (21.7) | 44 (50.6) | 39 (44.8) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 208 (54.5) | 84 (40.4) | 124 (59.6) | 1 | 0.24 | 1 | 0.148 | |
Yes | 174 (45.5) | 60 (34.5) | 114 (65.5) | 1.287 (0.85, 1.95) | 1.5 (0.87, 2.45) | |||
No | 130 (34.0) | 55 (42.3) | 75 (57.7) | 1 | 0.18 | 1 | 0.963 | |
Yes | 252 (66.0) | 89 (35.3) | 163 (64.7) | 1.343 (0.871, 2.07) | 1.01 (0.59, 1.7) | |||
No | 188 (49.2) | 57 (30.3) | 131 (69.7) | 1.869 (1.23, 2.845) | 0.004 | 1.4 (0.825, 2.225) | 0.230 | |
Yes | 194 (50.8) | 87 (44.8) | 107 (55.2) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 105 (27.5) | 27 (25.7) | 78 (74.3) | 2.112 (1.283, 3.5) | 0.003 | 5.3 (0.55, 50) | 0.146 | |
Yes | 277 (72.5) | 117 (42.2) | 160 (57.8) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 230 (60.2) | 81 (35.2) | 149 (64.8) | 1.302 (0.9, 1.9) | 0.219 | 1.4 (0.9, 2.204) | 0.178 | |
Yes | 152 (39.8) | 63 (41.4) | 89 (58.6) | 1 | 1 |
Univariate logistic regression analyses showed that statistical differences in IPIs resulted due to variations in school, family size, modes of school waste disposal, knowledge of IPIs, playing with soil, suckling fingers, school toilet function, school water access, and household toilet (
In the multivariate regression, family size more than five, open school waste disposal, and lack of knowledge were more likely associated with IPIs (
Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis of potential risk factors associated with
Risk factors | Categories | Total no. (%) | Negative no. (%) | Positive no. (%) | COR, 95% CI | AOR, 95% CI | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
River | 30 (7.9) | 15 (50) | 15 (50) | 2.417 (1.07, 5.456) | 0.096 | 2.351 (1.031, 5.360) | 0.039 | |
Spring | 52 (13.6) | 38 (73.1) | 14 (26.9) | 0.89 (0.431, 1.839) | 0.835 (0.395, 1.764) | |||
Well | 177 (46.3) | 129 (72.9) | 48 (27.1) | 0.899 (0.54, 1.498) | 0.706 (0.395, 1.260) | |||
Hand-dug well | 123 (32.2) | 87 (70.7) | 36 (29.3) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 367 (96.1) | 263 (71.66) | 104 (28.3) | 1 | 0.013 | 1 | 0.013 | |
Yes | 15 (3.9) | 6 (40) | 9 (60) | 3.79 (1.317, 10.92) | 3.957 (1.34, 11.67) | |||
No | 105 (27.5) | 68 (64.8) | 37 (35.2) | 1.439 (0.89, 2.325) | 0.137 | 1.773 (1.004, 3.1) | 0.048 | |
Yes | 277 (72.5) | 201 (72.6) | 76 (27.4) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 85 (22.3) | 83 (97.6) | 2 (2.4) | 1.687 (0.15, 18.99) | 0.083 | 2.09 (.174, 25.1) | 0.042 | |
Yes only by water | 226 (59.2) | 209 (92.5) | 17 (7.5) | 5.694 (0.74, 43.56) | 7.973 (0.99, 64.5) | |||
Yes by soap | 71 (18.6) | 70 (99) | 1 (1) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 323 (84.6) | 304 (94.1) | 19 (5.9) | 3.625 (0.476, 27.6) | 0.214 | 3.14 (.39, 25.21) | 0.282 | |
Yes | 59 (15.4) | 58 (98.3) | 1 (1.7) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 299 (78.3) | 281 (94) | 18 (6) | 2.594 (0.59, 11.42) | 0.207 | 1.735 (.37, 8.08) | 0.483 | |
Yes | 83 (21.7) | 81 (97.6) | 2 (2.4) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 105 (27.5) | 96 (91.4) | 9 (8.6) | 2.267 (0.911, 5.64) | 0.078 | 2.101 (0.78, 5.59) | 0.137 | |
Yes | 277 (72.5) | 266 (96) | 11 (4) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 188 (49.2) | 172 (91.5) | 16 (8.5) | 4.419 (1.45, 13.5) | 0.009 | 4.132 (1.3, 13.03) | 0.015 | |
Yes | 194 (50.8) | 190 (97.9) | 4 (2.1) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 85 (22.3) | 84 (98.8) | 1 (1.2) | 0.411 (0.036, 4.63) | 0.212 | 0.432 (0.034, 5.6) | 0.118 | |
Yes only by water | 226 (59.2) | 213 (94.2) | 13 (5.8) | 2.106 (0.464, 9.56) | 2.858 (0.53, 15.5) | |||
Yes by soap | 71 (18.6) | 69 (97.2) | 2 (2.8) | 1 | 1 | |||
Boiling | 3 (0.8) | 3 (100) | 0 (0) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.125 | ---------- | 0.030 | |
Filtering | 36 (9.4) | 32 (88.9) | 4 (11.1) | 1.250 (0.209, 7.46) | 1.378 (0.19, 10.1) | |||
Direct | 321 (84.03) | 311 (96.9) | 10 (3.4) | 0.322 (0.07, 1.567) | 0.206 (0.038, 1.13) | |||
Chlorine treated | 22 (5.8) | 20 (90.9) | 2 (9.1) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 299 (78.3) | 284 (94.9) | 15 (5.02) | 4.331 (0.56, 33.28) | 0.159 | 5.473 (0.67, 44.69) | 0.113 | |
Yes | 83 (21.7) | 82 (99) | 1 (1) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 147 (38.5) | 144 (97.9) | 3 (2.1) | 1 | 0.112 | 1 | 0.062 | |
Yes | 235 (61.5) | 222 (94.5) | 13 (5.5) | 2.811 (0.79, 10.04) | 3.581 (0.94, 13.7) | |||
River | 30 (7.9) | 28 (93.3) | 2 (6.7) | 1.686 (0.311, 9.143) | 0.106 | 2.004 (0.353, 11.392) | 0.168 | |
Spring | 52 (13.6) | 46 (88.5) | 6 (11.5) | 3.078 (0.89, 10.58) | 2.826 (0.793, 10.068) | |||
Well | 177 (46.3) | 155 (87.6) | 22 (12.4) | 3.350 (1.23, 9.106) | 3.441 (1.133, 10.447) | |||
Hand-dug well | 123 (32.2) | 118 (95.9) | 5 (4.1) | 1 | 1 | |||
Female | 191 (50) | 167 (87.4) | 24 (12.6) | 2.352 (1.117, 4.95) | 0.024 | 2.098 (.971, 4.535) | 0.059 | |
Male | 191 (50) | 180 (94.2) | 11 (5.8) | 1 | 1 | |||
1–4 | 162 (42.4) | 142 (87.7) | 20 (12.3) | 1.925 (0.95, 3.89) | 0.068 | 2.28 (1.08, 4.814) | 0.031 | |
5–8 | 220 (57.6) | 205 (93.2) | 15 (6.8) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 130 (40) | 122 (93.8) | 8 (6.2) | 1 | 0.148 | 1 | 0.408 | |
Yes | 252 (60) | 225 (89.3) | 27 (10.7) | 1.83 (0.807, 4.152) | 1.44 (0.607, 3.417) | |||
No | 105 (27.5) | 91 (86.7) | 14 (13.3) | 1.875 (0.915, 3.84) | 0.086 | 1.021 (0.415, 2.514) | 0.964 | |
Yes | 277 (72.5) | 256 (92.4) | 21 (7.6) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 188 (49.2) | 163 (86.7) | 25 (13.3) | 2.822 (1.316, 6.053) | 0.008 | 2.651 (1.176, 5.973) | 0.019 | |
Yes | 194 (50.8) | 184 (94.8) | 10 (5.2) | 1 | 1 | |||
6–11 | 123 (32.2) | 120 (97.5) | 3 (2.4) | 0.1 (0.008, 1.185) | 0.180 | 0.012 (0.00, 2.25) | 0.251 | |
12–18 | 254 (66.5) | 242 (95.3) | 12 (4.7) | 0.198 (0.02, 1.91) | 0.017 (0.0, 2.856) | |||
19–21 | 5 (1.3) | 4 (80) | 1 (20) | 1 | 1 | |||
River | 30 (7.9) | 27 (90) | 3 (10) | 13.556 (1.4, 135.4) | 0.099 | 13.837 (1.1, 174.7) | 0.158 | |
Spring | 52 (13.6) | 51 (98.1) | 1 (1.9) | 2.392 (0.15, 38.98) | 2.542 (0.128, 50.6) | |||
Well | 177 (46.3) | 166 (93.8) | 11 (6.2) | 8.084 (1.03, 63.46) | 7.677 (0.78, 75.5) | |||
Hand-dug well | 123 (32.2) | 122 (99.1) | 1 (0.9) | 1 | 1 | |||
No | 147 (38.5) | 146 (99.3) | 1 (0.7) | 1 | 0.027 | 1 | 0.021 | |
Yes | 235 (61.5) | 220 (93.6) | 15 (6.4) | 9.955 (1.3, 76.177) | 15.282 (1.5, 154.2) | |||
No | 299 (78.3) | 284 (94.9) | 15 (5.1) | 4.331 (0.56, 33.3) | 0.159 | 17.284 (0.4, 721.8) | 0.134 | |
Yes | 83 (21.7) | 82 (98.8) | 1 (1.2) | 1 | 1 | |||
Open field | 263 (68.8) | 248 (94.3) | 15 (5.7) | 7.137 (0.932, 54.674) | 0.059 | 4.2 (0.51, 34.94) | 0.184 | |
Burry and firing | 119 (52.1) | 118 (99.2) | 1 (0.8) | 1 | 1 |
The multivariate regression analysis shows that drinking river water, eating soil, and lack of school water access were significantly associated with
Maternal handwashing habits and school toilet functions were the only predictors of
The household drinking water source was the only risk factor associated with
Statistically significant differences in
Only the habit of eating raw meat resulted in statistically significant differences in
The overall prevalence of IPIs in the present study was 62.3%. It was comparable with the studies done in Sasiga District, Southwest Ethiopia (62.4%) [
This overall prevalence was higher than that of the national prevalence of IPIs among school children (52%) [
The prevalence of IPIs among the male and female students in the Dera District was 61.8% and 62.8%, respectively. No statistically significant difference was observed between male and female students. The outcome of the study was in line with the studies done in Glomekeda district, Northern Ethiopia, males (31.3%) and females (28.6%) [
However, it disagrees with the studies done in Gobgob Northwest, Ethiopia, where males (38.9%) were more infected than females (26.4%)
Korata, Mirafe Mariam, and Wagira primary schools are found near Lake Tana. Their soil is wet, swampy, and suitable for agriculture and irrigation activities. The people from these areas are farmers and their children are engaged in farming and irrigation activities. Wagira has one dam that is used for irrigation cultivating vegetables, fruits, onions, khat, and cereals. Accordingly, the prevalence of IPIs was high in Korata (74.3%), Mirafe Mariam (61.5%), and Wagira (58.6%).
The prevalence of IPIs in Korata (74.3%) was relatively similar to the studies done in Mizan-Aman town, Ethiopia (72.9%), Ediget Behibret, Ethiopia (88.9%), and Mizan Number One, Ethiopia (83.4%) [
The prevalence of protozoa parasitic infections in our study was 33%. The outcome of the study was higher than the studies done in Birbir town, Southern Ethiopia (7.1%) [
On the contrary, the outcome was comparable with the studies conducted in Glomekeda District, Northern Ethiopia (27.8%) [
The prevalence of helminths in the study area was 44.76%. The result was lower than the studies done in Malaysia (60.8%) [
Nine species of IPIs were isolated from the study area.
The prevalence of
The prevalence of
On the other hand,
The prevalence of hookworm in the study area was 21.7%. This result was relatively similar to the studies done in Bahir Dar, Ethiopia (22.8%) [
The prevalence of
The prevalence of
Prevalence of
The prevalence of
The prevalence of
The predominant IPIs in the five primary schools were
The present study showed that family size was strongly associated with IPIs. The likelihood of being infected by IPIs among students belonging to a family size of above five was twofold compared to students belonging to a family size of less than or equal to five. The present finding agrees with other studies conducted in Ethiopia [
Students who lack knowledge of IPIs were twofold more likely to be infected than students who knew IPIs. This finding agrees with the studies done in Malaysia [
Open field school waste disposal activities in the study area were strongly associated with the prevalence of IPIs. Students from schools that practiced open field waste disposal activities were sixteen times prone to IPIs compared to students from schools that did not openly dispose of wastes. The outcome agrees with the study from Ethiopia [
The odds of having
Mothers’ handwashing by water alone and not using school toilets by students were risk factors associated with
Students who did not use the school toilet were four times more likely to be infected by
Students who used to drink unprotected water were 1.378 times more likely to be infected by
Grade and the school toilet function were risk factors for
Not using the school toilet was associated with a
Eating raw meat was the major associated risk factor for
The study was limited to only wet-mount and formol-ether concentration techniques. Not using Kato-Katz, PCR, and Ziehl-Neelsen techniques may underestimate the prevalence of IPIs in the area.
The prevalence of IPIs is high in the study locality. No clear difference in the prevalence of IPIs exists across the five schools. Family size greater than five, open field school waste disposal activities, and lack of knowledge of IPIs among children are independently associated with the overall prevalence of IPIs. We recommend community-based health education, mass treatment, and school-based deworming without interruption.
The data supporting the conclusions of this article are within the article and the supplementary file.
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Dires Tegen and Destaw Damtie contributed to conceptualization, data curation, methodology, and writing of the original draft and final draft. Dires Tegen contributed to investigation, software, and supervision.
The authors acknowledge the support from Hamusit and Korata Health Centers for permeating the laboratory facilities for stool sample testing.
S1_File. Pdf. Ethical clearance paper. S2_File. Pdf. Questionnaire (English and Amharic versions).