Positive (PA) and negative affect (NA) are two separate systems markers of subjective well-being and measures of the state depression (low PA combined with high NA). The present study investigated differences in temperament, character, locus of control, and depressive symptoms (sleep quality, stress, and lack of energy) between affective profiles in an adolescent sample. Participants (
Although most would agree in viewing positive and negative affect as opposite ends of a continuum, there is much evidence that they are best construed as two separate systems [
Moreover, the two dimensions of affect are markers of subjective well-being (SWB), which is usually measured through subjective evaluation and involves both a cognitive and an affective component [
Along this line of reasoning, some researchers [
Studies among adults show that self-fulfilling and high affective profiles, compared to low affective and self-destructive profiles, perform better during stressful situations (e.g., Norlander et al. [
Moreover, self-acceptance [
According to Cloninger’s psychobiological model of personality [
Temperament and character description (reproduced with permission of C. R. Cloninger).
Temperament and character descriptors | ||
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Harm avoidance | Worrying and pessimistic; | Relaxed and optimistic; |
fearful and doubtful; | bold and confident; | |
shy; | outgoing; | |
fatigable. | vigorous. | |
Novelty seeking | Exploratory and curious; | Indifferent; |
impulsive; | reflective; | |
extravagant and enthusiastic; | frugal and detached; | |
disorderly. | orderly and regimented. | |
Reward dependance | Sentimental and warm; | Practical and cold; |
dedicated and attached; | withdraw and detached; | |
dependent. | independent. | |
Persistence | Industrious and diligent; | Inactive and indolent; |
hard working; | gives up easily; | |
ambitious and overachiever; | modest and underachiever; | |
perseverant and perfectionist. | quitting and pragmatist. | |
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Self-directedness | Mature and strong; | Immature and fragile; |
responsible and reliable; | blaming and unreliable; | |
purposeful; | purposeless; | |
resourceful and effective; | inert and ineffective; | |
self-accepted; | self-striving; | |
habits congruent with long-term goals. | habits incongruent with long-term goals. | |
Cooperativeness | Socially tolerant; | Socially intolerant; |
empathic; | critical; | |
helpful; | unhelpful; | |
compassionate and constructive; | revengeful and destructive; | |
ethical and principled. | opportunistic. | |
Self-transcendence | Wise and patient; | Impatient; |
creative and self-forgetful; | unimaginative and self-conscious; | |
united with the universe. | pride and lack of humility. |
Cloninger’s psychobiological model of personality offers important contributions to the understanding of the role of personality on adolescents’ emotional experience. Adolescents who seek novel experiences (high novelty seeking) and higher levels of reward (high reward dependence), for example, often engage in risky behaviors, without considering future outcomes or consequences [
Accepting that PA and NA are different constructs, the present study investigates differences in temperament, character, locus of control, and symptoms of depression (sleep quality, stress, and lack of energy) between affective personality profiles in an adolescent sample. The hypothesis that self-destructive adolescents report most depressive symptoms compared to their classmates, and that personality profiles (including temperament and character) are distinct descriptive of affective profiles is tested.
The 304 participants (183 boys, 121 girls) were high school pupils from west Sweden (
The Swedish PANAS version used in the present study has been largely used in other studies among adolescents, for example, [
Previous studies [
The TCI measures the seven factors of the psychobiological model of personality with a total of 238 items with forced binary answer (yes or no). The Swedish version of the TCI [
The SE instrument is a self-estimation scale, consisting of 12 items that assess individuals’ experience of their own stress and energy. The test is divided into two subscales that express each participant’s level of mood in the two dimensions: “experienced stress” and “experienced energy”. Response alternatives are ordered within 6 points Likert scales (0 = not at all
The USI is a self-report instrument describing participants’ sleep profiles, as characterized by descriptions of potential difficulties falling asleep, psychophysiological problems (such as body aches, muscle tension, beating heart, “pins and needles”, anxiety feelings, etc.), and larger sleep problems. Here five response alternatives were available: “
The Locus of Control scale is a modified version of the original Rotter scale [
All adolescents in the study had written parental consent. If parents wanted any further information about the study, they were asked to contact the researchers. All adolescents received cinema tickets for their anonymous participation.
For statistical analyses the multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) test was applied in order to identify differences in depressive symptoms and personality between affective profiles, during what the affective profile was the independent variable and the dependent variables were depressive symptoms (i.e., levels of stress and energy, sleep problems, difficulties falling asleep, psychophysiological problems), personality (measured by the TCI), and locus of control (external and internal).
The four defined affective profiles were characterized with different patterns of depressive symptoms. A significant effect emerged for levels of stress (
Mean (±SD) scores for stress, energy, large sleep problems, difficulties falling asleep, and psychobiological problems among affective profiles.
Self-fulfilling | High affective | Low affective | Self-destructive | |
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(high PA and low NA) | (high PA and high NA) | (low PA and low NA) | (low PA and high NA) | |
Energy |
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Stress |
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20.16 ± 1.13▲ |
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26.50 ± 1.15▲ |
Major sleep problems |
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19.30 ± 4.19▲ | 17.30 ± 4.69▲ | 19.95 ± 4.86▲ |
Difficulties falling asleep | 17.42 ± 4.29 | 21.34 ± 4.96▲ | 18.52 ± 4.88 | 23.52 ± 6.49▲ |
Psychophysiological problems |
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25.63 ± 1.07▲ | 24.06 ± 1.09▲ | 29.24 ± 1.09▲ |
In regard to personality profiles describing the four affective group self-fulfilling adolescents were characterized with significantly lower harm avoidance (
Mean (±SD) scores for temperament, character, and locus of control among affective profiles.
Self-fulfilling | High affective | Low affective | Self-destructive | |
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(high PA and low NA) | (high PA and high NA) | (low PA and low NA) | (low PA and high NA) | |
Novelty seeking | 56.06 ± 1.45 | 56.34 ± 1.58 | 55.37 ± 1.51 | 54.31 ± 1.53 |
Harm avoidance | 33.22 ± 1.79 | 42.92 ± 1.35▲ | 45.19 ± 1.80▲ | 54.97 ± 1.93▲ |
Reward dependence | 53.31 ± 1.48 | 56.58 ± 1.61▲ | 52.17 ± 1.55 | 57.06 ± 1.72▲ |
Persistence | 59.38 ± 2.52* | 53.31 ± 2.72 | 43.50 ± 2.47 | 44.11 ± 2.41 |
Self-directedness | 65.62 ± 1.45* | 58.02 ± 1.27 | 60.43 ± 1.73 | 48.30 ± 1.57 |
Cooperativeness | 69.37 ± 1.39* | 67.13 ± 1.54 | 65.95 ± 1.59 | 63.05 ± 1.68 |
Self-transcendence | 39.42 ± 1.87 | 48.61 ± 1.78● | 34.77 ± 1.61 | 41.76 ± 1.73 |
External locus of control | 7.11 ± 2.15 | 9.21 ± 2.33 | 7.25 ± 2.56 | 14.49 ± 2.32▲ |
Internal locus of control | 12.71 ± 2.37 | 12.65 ± 2.88 | 12.41 ± 2.59 | 12.02 ± 2.46 |
In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that self-destructive adolescents report most depressive symptoms compared to their classmates, and that personality profiles (including temperament and character) are distinct descriptive of affective profiles. The results showed that adolescents expressing a self-fulfilling profile (i.e., high PA and low NA) report higher levels of sleep quality, less stress, and more energy than the other three profiles and had a more mature character and were more persistent. As suggested in the introduction, adolescents who seek novel experiences and higher levels of reward often engage in risky behaviours, without considering future outcomes or consequences [
In the present study, this mature character was defined by a higher autonomous self-concept (i.e., high in self-directedness) and a tendency to be more socially adapted (i.e., high cooperativeness). A self-directed adolescent might be described as mature and strong, responsible and reliable, purposeful, resourceful and effective, and self-accepted [
Locus of control may be viewed as a prevailing expectancy, perceptions/cognitions that allow the evaluation of situations and circumstances. Individuals characterised by an internal locus of control (internals) believe that they control their own fate whereas those characterised by external locus of control (externals) are convinced that chance, luck, the stars, or behaviour of others determine the course of their lives. In the present study, individuals expressing self-fulfilling behaviour expressed markedly less (less than half) external locus of control than individuals expressing self-destructive. This observation associates high levels of external locus of control with depressive tendencies. Previously, in three different studies, Archer and colleagues [
Although the instruments used to measure PA and NA showed high reliability, appropriate measures for the two constructs have been developed and validated for use with adolescents (e.g., the PANAS-C) [
Studies among preadolescent children may supply important insights of adolescents’ depressiveness and related symptoms since predictors of behavioural problems that persist from adolescence to adulthood (e.g., conduct problems) are best assessed prior to adolescence [
The results presented here show an expected and well matching nomological network between the measures indicating a chance to influence a depressive state in a positive way by promoting positive emotions as well as encourage character maturation. With an investment in increasing character maturity in adolescents, an increase in life energy and decrease in less sleep and psychosocial problems could be achieved. These results together with other evidences from studies applying PANAS and TCI [
The authors would like to thank the Stiftelsen Kempe-Carlgrenska Fonden for supporting the development of this paper. The authors want to also thank the participants and their families.