Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2012 (2012), Article ID 604363, 30 pages

doi:10.1155/2012/604363

Research Article

Comparative Medical Ethnobotany of the Senegalese Community Living in Turin (Northwestern Italy) and in Adeane (Southern Senegal)

Rachele Ellena,¹ Cassandra L. Quave,² and Andrea Pieroni¹

¹University of Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele 9, Pollenzo, 12060 Bra, Italy

²Center for the Study of Human Health, Emory University, 550 Asbury Circle, Candler Library 107, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA

Received 20 February 2012; Accepted 26 March 2012

Academic Editor: Manuel Pardo-de-Santayana

Copyright © 2012 Rachele Ellena et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract.

A medico-ethnobotanical survey was conducted among the Senegalese migrant communities of Turin (Piedmont, NW Italy) and their peers living in Adeane (Casamance, Southern Senegal), both among healers and laypeople. Through 27 in-depth interviews, 71 medicinal plant taxa were recorded and identified in Adeane and 41 in Turin, for a total of 315 different folk remedies recorded in Senegal and 62 in Turin. The large majority of the medicinal plants recorded among Senegalese migrants in Turin were also used in their country of origin. These findings demonstrate the resilience of home remedies among migrants and consequently the role they should have in shaping public health policies devoted to migrant groups in Western Countries, which seek to seriously take into account culturally sensitive approaches, that is, emic health-seeking strategies.

1. Introduction

In the last decade, the ethnobotany of migrant populations, especially in Western countries, has become the focus of a number of studies, which have investigated the trajectories of change of Traditional Medicines (TMs) and especially Traditional Knowledge (TK) concerning medicinal plants. Moreover, such studies have made progress in gaining a better understanding of newcomers’ health-seeking strategies. These data are crucial in the implementation of culturally sensitive approaches in public health and nutritional policies in the host countries and/or to improve phyto-pharmacovigilance [1–5].

In particular, in Europe, the ethnobotanical knowledge of various migrant groups has been studied in different (mainly urban) contexts: Turkish and Russian migrants in Germany [6, 7]; Thai women in Sweden [8]; Surinamese migrants in The Netherlands [9, 10]; South-Asians [11–14] and Andeans in England [15–17]. From these previous studies, three key findings have emerged so far.

(i)Newcomers’ TK and related domestic practices may show various degrees of resilience (i.e., the attitude to recover from the changes, which originate from the displacement).(ii)The resilience is highly dependent on practical circumstances (distance between the home and the host countries, corresponding to possibilities of frequent travel), but also on complex cultural exchanges ongoing between the diasporas and the autochthonous and/or other migrant populations. For example, factors such as (1) the occurrence of relevant transnational social and trade networks between the migrants and their home country, (2) the availability of traditional practitioners and/or herbs and food plant items in food shops in the host country, (3) identity-bound perceptions in relation to specific botanicals (which may be considered culturally important), (4) laws in place in the host countries allowing or tolerating the occurrence of non-autochthonous food/medicinal plants, and (5) multicultural approaches in the institutionalised public health frameworks of the host country, all play crucial roles in determining the resilience and sustainability of these TM practices in the migrants’ host country.(iii)The aforementioned cultural negotiations that impact TK resilience are rapidly changing on both temporal and spatial scales, and even the “representation” of plants and remedies related to “traditions” is in a state of flux among generations over time.

In Italy, no ethnobotanical study has addressed these specific issues thus far, despite the fact that the country has faced tremendous changes in its social structure over the last two decades. In fact, these changes are due in large part to the arrival of a significant number of young and middle-aged migrants from Africa and especially Eastern Europe (most notably, Romanians and Albanians). Nowadays, it is estimated that five million migrants live in Italy, with an increase of three million in the last ten years [18]. The large majority of migrants live in the Central-Northern regions of the country; one-fifth of which are Romanians, followed by Albanians and Moroccans. The Senegalese are quantitatively the 17th largest migrant community in Italy, but they represent the biggest “black” African community in the country, encompassing approximately 73,000 members. Moreover, this community is also historically one of the most important migrant groups in Italy, as it formed a significant presence already in the 1980’s [18].

Recent sociological studies have pointed out the existence of a Senegalese transmigrant movement made of people who are regular “comers and goers” between Africa and Europe and that their perception of a successful return is still associated—in contrast with other African communities—with permanent return to their homeland. This final aim is, however, generally compromised with aspirations of economic advancement and family obligations [19, 20]. Most of the earnings of Senegalese migrants are used for investment in housing in their home country, significantly altering the landscape of local cities [21].

Despite the fact that a study has well demonstrated the link between depression and rapid changes in the social organisation among Senegalese migrants [22], a fair public debate on culturally sensitive approaches in transcultural health policies is still lacking in Italy. This could be due to the state of political discourse in Italy, which has been highly influenced over the last years by instances of xenophobia, and which has subsequently affected several political actors and policy makers [23–27].

The aims of this study were to record uses of natural remedies (including food preparations perceived as “healthy”) among the Senegalese community of Turin (Northern Italy) and in their country of origin, to compare these two ethnobotanies and to consequently formulate considerations on how TK changed or is changing following displacement of Senegalese citizens.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. The Study Area and Fieldwork

2.1.1. Turin, Italy

Turin (approx. 900,000 inhabitants, Piedmont, NW Italy, Figure 1) hosts an important Senegalese migrant community counting approx. 1,200 members (2004) [28]. The most significant influx of Senegalese in Turin only began at the end of 1980s. At that time, young males migrated to Italy from various areas of the Senegalese countryside and especially from those areas which were badly affected by the great drought of the 1970s. Traditionally, families gave their fourth or fifth child away to the Islamic brotherhood of believers for instruction in the faith and to work for the order, mainly engaging in agricultural activities. With the advance of desertification, however, the practice of agriculture was increasingly difficult and, as a consequence, the order allowed young people to move abroad to work in industry and services [28].

Figure 1: Location of the study sites.

It was therefore a progressive flow, and not a mass migration, that characterized the Senegalese emigration to Italy. As often happens, the journey for many has been fragmented at various stages due to issues such as the search of a visa or other means of entry into the country. However, in Turin, the first arrivals had no intention of staying, since their aim was to work hard for a few years and return the home country. With time, however, things have changed, resulting in more stable settlements in the Italian landscape [28].

2.1.2. Adeane, Senegal

Adeane is a town of 9,000 inhabitants, located an hour’s drive from Ziguinchor, the largest urban centre in the region of Casamance, Southern Senegal (Figure 1). The climate in Casamance is the most humid of the country and subtropical forests prevail in the landscape. The abundance of rain in the Casamance permits the cultivation of a wide variety of crops.

The Casamance is inhabited mainly by the Jola ethnic group (Diola, in the French transliteration), which constitute approximately 60% of the population. Those of the Wolof ethnic group, which represent the ethnic majority in Senegal, constitute only 5% in the Casamance region. The largest portion of the Casamance inhabitants identifies their religious beliefs with Islam, while 17% are Catholics. This isolation has determined a strong regional identity and thus the culture of its people as well as its environmental heritage has been well preserved for a long time. The regional economy is based in part on tourism, especially along the coast and on the sale of crops like rice, peanuts, and millet.

2.1.3. The Fieldwork

Fieldwork was conducted over a period of one month (November 2010) in Turin and over a period of a second month (December 2010) in Adeane (Casamance, Southern Senegal). Turin was selected as a field site because it is the home of a vibrant Senegalese community, while the area of Casamance in Senegal was chosen because it is considered the most biological and cultural diverse region of the country, as well as the most conservative in terms of folk practices.

Participants in Turin were selected using snowball techniques among the first generation of Senegalese migrants (, all males), while in Casamance the same technique was used to select “laypeople” (, 7 females and 8 males). Additionally, in Adeane 4 healers (3 males and 1 female) were also interviewed. Prior Informed Consent (PIC) was obtained verbally before commencing each interview. Ethical guidelines followed the International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics [29].

Questions concerning the use of medicinal and/or food plants were asked via a previous free listing of pathologies and related use of “home remedies.” For each named item, the field researcher (RE) asked for exact details of how the home medicine/food was prepared and its folk medical/food use. Interviews were conducted in Italian in Turin and in French in Casamance.

In Casamance, the named plant items were collected, when available, photographed, dried, identified by a local plant taxonomist (Professor Amadou Tidiane, Department of Agricultural Studies, University of Ziguinchor, Senegal) and via the West African plants photo database [30], and deposited at the Herbarium of the University of Gastronomic Sciences, Pollenzo, Italy. The nomenclature follows IPNI [31], with family assignments following the current Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III recommendations [32, 33].

2.2. Data Analysis

The ethnobotanical data collected from Turin and Adeane were compared with each other. Moreover, the ethnobotanical data were compared with the preexisting literature on Senegalese TM and the traditional pharmacopoeia of Senegal [34–36].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. The Medical Ethnobotany of the Senegalese Migrants in Turin

Table 1 reports all medicinal plants quoted by the Senegalese migrants in Turin. In total, 47 folk taxa were recorded as medicinally used in Turin; 41 of these have been botanically identified. Of these remedies, only a few (eight) could be considered food medicines, thus contradicting what previous studies among migrants medical ethnobotanies have found [6, 13, 17]. This may be due to the fact that regular provision of African vegetables and other fresh food ingredients is scarce in Turin, where generally only dried spices and medicinal plants are imported. Another explanation may be that the Senegalese migrant community in Turin is mainly represented by males, who—in contrast to women—are not holders of culinary knowledge and therefore they do not generally have experience in managing healthcare via the diet within the domestic domain.

Table 1: Medicinal plant remedies used by Senegalese migrants in Turin.

Botanical taxon, family, and voucher specimen code
Local name(s)
Part(s) used
Preparation and administration
Folk medical use (used against/to regulate)
Qs

Adansonia digitata L. (Bombacaceae)
Baobob
Seed
Eaten
Diarrhoea
+

Seed
Grind the seeds and put the powder on the lips
Burning lips

Grind the seeds and put the powder on the painful tooth
Toothache

Acacia nilotica (L.)

Willd. ex Delile (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN15
Mbano (m)

Nep nep (w)
Root
Make a decoction and drink just a little bit
Indigestion
+++

Externally applied
Wounds

Bark
Drink the beverage together with Tamarindus indica fruit pulp and Hibiscus sabdariffa flowers
Fatigue

Grind it, add salt, and put it on the haematoma
Haematoma
+++

Acacia tortilis (Forssk.)

Hayne (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN05
Senjen (w)
Root
Drink the decoction
Eye inflammations

Bellyache

Drink the decoction while eating some sugar, repeating the procedure three times a day
Worms

Macerated in water for two days; the macerate drunk
Sexual impotence

Stomachache

Kidney troubles

Adansonia digitata L. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN20
Buy (w)

Baobab (f)
Fruit
Drink the beverage made using the pulp around the seeds
Diarrhoea
+++

Same as above, adding Hibiscus sabdariffa flower
Diarrhoea

Allium cepa L. (Amaryllidaceae)
Cibolle
Bulb
Eaten
Sexual impotence

Cold
+

Allium sativum L. (Amaryllidaceae)
Ail (f)

Ladji (w)
Bulb
Put a piece of garlic on the right wrist if the sore tooth is in the upper jaw and vice versa for the lower jaw (chanting Koran’s verses helps the pain to disappear)
Toothache

Sexual impotence
+++

Eaten
Intestinal worms

Lowering the blood pressure

Cold and cold prevention

Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae)
Anacardo
Seed
Drunk
Antibiotic
+

Annona senegalensis Pers. (Annonaceae)
Suncun
Leaf
Put (powdered) on the fire
Magic remedy (supposed to counteract bad spirits)
+

Arachis hypogaea L. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN16
Arachide (f)

Gerte (w)
Seed
Eat the seeds
Stomachache
+

Balanites aegyptiaca

(L.) Delile (Zygophyllaceae)
Dattier du désert (f)

Soumpu

Gurp

Petit cola
Leaf
Grind the leaves and drink the infusion prepared with the powdered leaves
Sore throat
+++

Fruit
Chew the fruit without ingesting it
Stomachache

Digestive

Fatigue

Nausea

Calotropis procera (Aiton)

W.T. Aiton (Apocynaceae) UNISGSEN55
Kipampaan (p)

Poftan (m)

Pomme de Sodome (f)
Root
Cut the roots into small pieces, put it into

a cotton handkerchief, squeeze, it and inhale the aroma
Sinusitis
+

Stems

juice
Externally applied
Wounds

Leaf
Drink the infusion prepared with ground leaves
Constipation
+++

Cassia italica (Mill)

Sprengel (Fabaceae)
Layduur (w)
Drink the infusion prepared with ground leaves
Intoxication

Root
Leave the root soaking all night and drink the water in the morning, before breakfast
Intestinal worms

Cassia occidentalis L. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN11
Adiana (w)

Bantaare (p)

Bentamarè (s)

Kassala (m)

Mbanta xobi (w)
Leaf
Put leaves around the head
Headache
+

Baths
Fatigue

Cassia tora L. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN76
Cassepuante (f)

Ndur (w)
Leaf
Use it as a mouthwash
Mouth infections
+

Ceratotheca sesamoides

Endl. (Pedaliaceae)
Jorokh lane (w)
Leaf
Put the leaf into water at room temperature and after it releases oil, apply the oil to the body
High fever
+

Dried leaf is soaked in water; the water is drunk
Bellyache

Citrus limon (L.)

Osbeck. (Rutaceae)
Citron (f)

Limon (w)
Fruit
Drink the juice
To lose weight

Digestive

Strengthening

Malaria (drunk in the coffee)
++

Combretum aculeatum

Vent. (Combretaceae)
Sawat (w)
Leaf
Put ground leaves and sugar into water and instil the solution in the eyes
White spot in the eye on the pupil
+

Combretum glutinosum

Perr. ex DC. (Combretaceae)
Chigommier (f)

Rat (w)
Leaf
Drink the decoction
Bronchitis/cough

Sexual impotence
+

Leaf
Drink the decoction (sometimes adding cloves)
Cold

Flue

Lung infections

Sore throat

Antihypertensive
+++

Combretum micranthum

G. Don (Combretaceae) UNISGSEN10
Quinkeliba (f)

Sekhaw (w)
Flower
Drink the decoction with milk every morning
Enhancing the “well-being”

Make a decoction with Xylopia aethiopica seeds and cloves (Eugenia caryophillata flower buds)
Vision problems

Dioscorea spp. (Dioscoreaceae) UNISGSEN83
Igname (f)

Yam (w)
Root
Eat the root
To gain weight
+

Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (Arecaceae)
Palmier à huile (f)

Tiir (w)
Fruit→ Oil
Add oil and coffee to Vitellaria paradoxa butter and dab on the body
To get rid of the “dead” blood when feeling weak
+

Dab on the body
Boils

Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (Myrtaceae) UNISGSEN88
Eucaliptus (f)

Khotta bu tel (w)
Leaf
Put it around the head while listening to the reading of the Koran
Headache
+

Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb (Myrtaceae) UNISGSEN38
Girofle (f)

Xorompole (w)
Flower bud
Use the infusion prepared with Xylopia

aethiopica seeds and Combretum micranthum flower
Vision problems
+

Euphorbia balsamifera

Ait. (Euphorbiaceae)
Salan

Salan mbechi
Branch
Cut the branch and put the latex on the wound
Wounds
++

Root
Drink the decoction
Bellyache

Ficus iteophylla Miq. (Moraceae)
Xassum loro (w)
Leaf
Drink the decoction
Digestive asthma
+++

Leaf
Dab on the affected part
Backache skin allergies

Grewia bicolor Juss. (Malvaceae)
Kel (w)
Leaf
Drink the decoction
Fatigue

Bronchitis/cough

Digestive
++

Guiera senegalensis

J.F. Gmel. (Combretaceae) UNISGSEN18
Ngueer (w) Mamakumkoyo (m) Mamankuiò (s)
Root
Drink the decoction
Cold
+++

Leaf
Drink the decoction
Bronchitis/cough kidney troubles

Fatigue stomachache

Put the infusion into the eyes
Itchy eyes
+++

Flower (red)
Drink the decoction
Bellyaches Menstrual pains Preventing ageing Fatigue Fever Improving the blood circulation

Hibiscus sabdariffa L. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN12
Bissap (w)

Karkadè (f)
Put the infusion into the eyes
Eye problems

Drink the beverage together with Tamarindus indica fruit pulp and Acacia nilotica bark
Fatigue

Flower (white)
As a food medicine—as a main ingredient of a dish prepared with boiled meat of fish, cooked with tamarind and chilies (lakk bissap)
Fatigue

Maerua crassifolia Forssk (Capparaceae)
Sothiou (w)

Sothiou suukar
Branch
Chew the branch
Halitosis
+

Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae) UNISGSEN37
Manguier (f)

Màngo joolaa (w)
Leaf
Drink the decoction
Tetanus
++

Manihot esculenta

Crantz (Euphorbiaceae) UNISGSEN07
Gnambi (w)

Manioc (f)

Mañok (m)
Root
Eat the root
To gain weight
+

Moringa oleifera Lam. (Moringaceae)
Nebedai
Leaf
Eaten in sauces, generally accompanied

with meat and couscous
Diabetes
+

Musa paradisiaca L. (Musaceae)
Bananier (f)
Leaf
Topical application of the leaf infusion
Burns
+

Panicum miliaceum L. (Poaceae)
Mil (f)
Fruit
Eat millet (couscous)
To gain weight

Fatigue
+

Parinari macrophylla Sabine (Chrysobalanaceae)
New (w)

Tamba
Leaf
Drink the infusion made from 7 leaves
High blood pressure
+

Leaf
Drink the infusion
Stomachache

Piper nigrum

L. (Piperaceae)
Mex pobare (w)

Poivre noir (f)
Fruit
Eat the dried berry
Runny nose
+

Tamarindus indica

L. (Fabaceae)
Tamarin (f)

Daqaar (w)
Fruit

pulp
Eaten, or drunk, in a beverage made adding the bark of Acacia nilotica and the flower of Hibiscus sabdariffa
Fatigue
+

Terminalia catappa

L. (Combretaceae)
Badamier (f)

Toubab (w)

Xopp kerte
Not specified
Not specified
Antibiotic, antifungal
+

Add salt to the butter and dab on the back
Backache
+++

Vitellaria paradoxa

C.F. Gaertn. (Sapotaceae)
Karitè (f)
Seed→butter
Add coffee, Elaeis guineensis’ oil and dab on the body
To get rid of the “dead” blood when feeling weak

Dab the butter on the body
Massage on the child’s body, to make the child stronger.

Bone strengthening

Dab the butter on hair
Hair loss

Drink the decoction, also a spice in the coffee
Sexual impotence
++

Xylopia aethiopica

A. Rich. (Annonaceae)

UNISGSEN70
Diar (w)

Jar
Seed
Instill the infusion of seeds into the eyes
Eye problems,

conjunctivitis

Instill the infusion of seeds into the ear
Otitis

Pour the infusion made from the seeds, Eugenia caryophyllata flower buds and Combretum micranthum flower
Vision problems

Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae) UNISGSEN09
Djindjer (w)

Djinjeroo (m)

Gingembre (f)
Fresh rhizome
Eaten, or juice drunk, or decoction
Sexual impotence

Blood circulation
+++

Leaf
Drink the decoction
Worms

Not identified
Berbef (w)
Use the rough leaf like a sponge under the shower
Pruritus
+

Fruit
Make a pasta and dab on the skin
Itchiness

Not identified
Bonye

Antibiotic
+

Not identified
Khambata (w)
Leaf
Drink the infusion
Headache
+

Not identified
Ndiadame
Fruit
Cook it slowly and eat it; it is really bitter
Intestinal worms
+

Not identified
Sangol (w)
Root
Put it in water for up to two minutes and drink it (very bitter)
Intestinal worms
+

Leaf
Soak in water and externally apply on the skin
Itchiness

Not identified
Watenobout (w)
Branch
Put the latex that comes out of the broken branch on the wound
Wounds
+

(f): French; (m): Mandingo; (p): Pulaar; (w): Wolof; Qs: quotations: + quoted by 1 or 2 informants only; ++ quoted by 3, 4, or 5 informants; +++ quoted by 5 informants or more.

All remedies quoted in Turin are generally bought in small ethnic food shops and mini-supermarkets located in city centre and managed by African and/or Chinese migrant entrepreneurs. A few of the most quoted taxa (Acacia, Adansonia, Guiera, Hibiscus) are well-known African medicinal plants, which are however lacking in the Western TM pharmacopoeia.

3.2. The Medical Ethnobotany of Adeane in Senegal

Table 2 reports all medicinal plants quoted in Adeane. In total, 71 species, representing 31 botanical families, were recorded as components to TMs in Adeane. However, although the large majority of recorded medicinal taxa were found in the reviews of the Senegalese TM [34–36], only a minority (<40%) of the actual medicinal plant uses are reported in the considered literature. This confirms the highly dynamic character of the home medicines in rural Africa and highlights the urgent need for inventorying folk plant uses beyond those that are cited in the “standardized” TM reviews.

Table 2: Plants used as medicines in Adeane, Casamance, Southern Senegal.

Botanical taxon, family,

and voucher specimen code
Local name(s)
Part(s) used
Preparation and administration
Folk medical use

(used against/to regulate)
Healers
Laypeople
Qs

Acacia albida Delile

(Fabaceae) UNISGSEN019
Kade (f)

Kadd (w)

Baransango
Root

Bark
Instill the infusion in the eye
Vision problems
+

3

Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd.

ex Delile (Fabaceae)

UNISGSEN15
Acacia

mlotique (f)

Nep nep (w)

Mbano (m)
Root
Apply the infusion externally
Herpes

+
2

Toothache

+

Acacia seyal Delile (Fabaceae)
Suuro
Leaf
Topical application of liquid resulting from pressed leaves
Toothache
+

1

Soak in water for some time and drink
Tapeworm
+

11

Stomachache
+

Bellyache

(abdominal pains)
+
+

Drink the cold infusion
Rheumatism
+

Apply the infusion on hair
Strengthening the hair
+

Boiled in water and the vapour is inhaled
Cold

+

Cold infusion is drunk
Blood pressure

+

Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN05
Senjen (w)
Root
Eat it with rice
Sterility

+

Make aerosol with the infusion?
Lung cancer

+

Drink the infusion
Bloodstream

+

Eat it with rice
Ulcer

+

Eat it with rice
Gastritis

+

Eat it with rice
Kidney problems

+

Drink the infusion
Menstrual pain

+

Malaria

+

Topical application of the infusion
Herpes

+

Topical application of the infusion
Boil

+

Drink the infusion
Fatigue
+
+

Drink the infusion
Tuberculosis
+
+

Leaf
Powdered leaf applied to burn and bandaged together with the oil of Arachis hypogaea
Burns
+

12

Drink the seed juice together with the flowers of Hibiscus sabdariffa
Fatigue
+
+

Adansonia digitata

L. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN20
Baobab (f)

Guy (w)
Seeds
Eat the seeds
Diarrhoea
+
+

Eat the seeds together with Citrus limon juice
Lack of appetite
+

Use it with Acacia albida, Guiera senegalensis, Parkia biglobosa, Annona senegalensis, Soora (nonidentified plant), and Ficus sycomorus
Headache, sore throat, cold taken as result of wind

+

Allium cepa L. (Amaryllidaceae)
Oignon (f)
Bulb
Infusion with leaves of Citrus limon
Sore throat
+

1

Drink the infusion in the morning
Blood pressure
+

8

Allium sativum L. (Amaryllidaceae)
Ail (f)

Ladji (w)
Bulb
Eat it raw in the morning
Intestinal worms
+

Eat it while marabout recites verses of the Koran
Depression

+

Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. (Xanthorrhoeaceae)

Leaf gel
Use it with Vitellaria paradoxa
Tuberculosis

+
2

Use it with Vitellaria paradoxa
Hair loss
+

Drink the infusion
Toothache

+
3

Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae)
Pomme-cajou (f)

Darkasa (w)

Bara diamboo (m)
Bark

Rheumatism
+

Put it in cold water for a while and drink it
Toothache

+

Blood pressure

+

Drink the infusion
Diabetes

+
3

Put the powder on the wound
Wounds

+

Drink the infusion
Rheumatism

+

Drink the infusion
Bloodstream

+

Annona senegalensis Pers. (Annonaceae) UNISGSEN36
Sunkun (m)
Leaf
Drink the infusion with Musa paradisiaca leaves and Combretum micranthum
Blood pressure

+

Use it with Piliostigma reticulatum
Headache

+

Use it with Piliostigma reticulatum
Tuberculosis

+

Use it with Acacia albida, Guiera senegalensis, Parkia biglobosa, Adansonia digitata, Soora (nonidentified plant), and Ficus sycomorus
Headache, Sore throat, Cold taken as result of wind

+

Leaf
Use it with Acacia albida and Parkia biglobosa
Depression

+

Fruit
Use it with oil of Elaeis guineensis’ oil
Hair
+

3

Arachis hypogaea L. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN16
Arachides (f)

Gerte (w)

Jamba katalig (m)
Leaf
Inhale the infusion prepared together with the leaves of Mangifera indica
General health

+

Seed→oil
Mix peanut oil together with the powdered leaves of Adansonia digitata and apply to burns before bandaging
Burns
+

Fruit
Eat the fruit fresh, not toasted
Cold
+

Wrap the leaf around the head
Headache
+

3

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae) UNISGSEN63
Cassia, Neem (f)

Niim, Ni va (w)

Bantare (m)
Leaf
Infuse with hot water and inhale the steam
Fatigue
+

Topical application of the infusion
Skin problems
+

Use it with Carica papaya and Citrus limon
Cold
+

Make an infusion with shade-dried leaves
Diabetes
+
+
3

Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex J.C. Wendl. (Poaceae) UNISGSEN54
Bambou (f)

Lonk (w)
Leaf
Drink the infusion with Combretum micranthum leaves
High blood pressure

+

Make an infusion, drink some

of it, and make aerosol with the resting water
Bloodstream

+

Drink the infusion
Obesity

+

Beta vulgaris L. (Chenopodiaceae)
Betterave (f)

Beteraaw (m)
Root
Eat it
Bloodstream
+

1

Eat it
Anemia
+

Borassus flabellifer L. (Arecaceae) UNISGSEN89
Ronier (f)

Kòoni (w)
Fruit
Burnt and pressed, pour resulting liquid into the ear
Earache

+
1

Malaria
+

6

Fatigue
+

Leaf
Warm the leaf up and wrap it around the neck
Sore neck
+

Topical application of juice from leaf on tooth
Toothache
+

Calotropis procera (Aiton)

W.T. Aiton (Apocynaceae) UNISGSEN55
Pomme de Sodome (f)

Poftan (m)

Kipampaan (p)

Wrap the leaf around the sore knee
Sore knees
+

Wrap the leaf around the head
Headache
+

Root
Use it with Ocimum basilicum
Rheumatism
+

Leaf ?
Use it with Mànganaso (unidentified plant) and Jatropha curcas. Drink it and vomit everything yellow
Yellow fever

+

Use it with Jatropha curcas and Mànganaso (unidentified plant)
Syphilis

+

Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabaceae)
Marijuana
Seeds
Drink the infusion
Asthma
+

1

Drink the infusion
Lack of appetite

5

Drink a glass of water with a chili pepper in it
Intestinal worms
+

Capsicum annuum L. (Solanaceae)
Kani (w)
Fruit
Mix lemon juice (Citrus limo) together with a chili pepper and gargle with the solution
Sore throat
+

Put in a small pan with Jatropha curcas, and drink
Hair loss

+

Put it in lemon juice (Citrus limon) and drink it
Constipation
+

Eat up the oil that comes out of the nut and dab it on the body three times a day with Vitellaria paradoxa butter
Sore back
+

9

Mix it with oil of Elaeis guineensis and butter of Vitellaria paradoxa and then dab it on hair
Strengthening the hair
+

Drink a spoonful every day
Poor memory
+

Drink a spoonful of it
Cough

+

Drink a spoonful of it
Sore throat
+

Topical application of the oil
Eye problems
+

Carapa procera DC.

(Meliaceae) UNISGSEN43
Tulukuna (m)
Seed→oil
Instill oil into the ears
Earache
+

Drink a spoonful of it
Fever
+

Drink a spoonful of it
Flu
+

Dab it on the skin in the area over the kidneys
Kidneys problems
+

Drink a spoonful of it
Bellyache
+

Use it before breakfast
Tapeworm
+

Dab it on affected muscles
Sore muscles
+

Peel it and apply to the sore tooth
Toothache
+

8

Use it with Citrus limon and Azadirachta indica
Cold
+

Root
Drink the infusion, adding salt
Syphilis (2)
+
+

Leaf
Drink the infusion
Anemia

+

Use it together with Psidium guajava leaves
Cystitis

+

Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae) UNISGSEN21
Papayer (f)

Papaayo (w)
Seeds
Dry the seeds in the sun, powder, and add to food
Intestinal worms

+

Fruit
Eat a soup with a ripe papaya in it together with chicken and a root of Tinospora bakis
Yellow fever
+

Boil the unripe fruit with undecorticated rice or simply eat the fruit, raw. Another remedy is to crack an egg over the unripe papaya and eat it
Yellow fever
+
+

Leaf
Drink the infusion together with the buds
Yellow fever

+

Add the following to water: dry leaves of Musa paradisiaca, little unripe fruits and leaves of Citrus limon, leaves of Cassia occidentalis, leaves of Mangifera indica, leaves of Ziziphus mauritiana and drink
Malaria

+

Fruit
Eat it together with Parkia biglobosa leaves
Yellow fever
+

Flower
Crumble flower into the water and drink
Headache
+

14

Leaf
Wrap around the head
Headache
+

Cassia occidentalis

L. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN11
Mbanta xobi or

Adiana (w)

Kasalaa (m)

Bentamarè (s)
Leaf
Wrap around the head
Conjunctivitis
+

Flowe?
Drink the infusion
Menstrual pain
+

Leaf
Put it in water for a while and wash yourself with it
Cold (Especially for children)
+

Flower?
Drink the infusion
For pregnant women
+

Leaf
Drop juice from pressed leaves

into the ear
Problems of the eardrum

+

Leaf
Add the following to water: dry leaves of Musa paradisiaca, little unripe fruits and leaves of Citrus limon, leaves of Mangifera indica, leaves of Carica papaya, and leaves of Ziziphus mauritiana
Malaria

+

Cassia tora L. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN76
Cassepuante (f)

Ndur (w)

Blemishes on scalp which may extend to the whole body

+
2

Use it with Ficus umbellata
Skin fungus

+

Fruit
Eat it
Bellyache
+

3

Root
Put little plants’ roots in water and then drink the water It is going to fizz
Fatigue
+

Ceiba pentandra

(L.) Gaertn. (Malvaceae)
Fromager,

Kapotier (f)

Bantau

Bentene (w)

Bark
Use infusion made with the bark as a mouthwash
Toothache
+

Root?

Cancer

+

Bark?
Pour the infusion on the baby’s head during baptism
Infant strength and protection

+

Root
Good for the blood because of the red colour
Blood
+
+

Leaf
Make an infusion together with leaves of Allium cepa
Sore throat
+

9

Fruit
Drink the juice
Sore throat
+

Drink the juice
To lose weight
+

Use the juice together with Capsicum to gargle
Sore throat
+

Leaf and Fruit
Drink a beverage made with lemon leaf and fruit (Citrus limon)
Headache
+

Fruit
Put the juice on the affected part together with Panicum miliaceum

flour
Herpes
+

Fruit
Drink the infusion with lemon juice (Citrus limon) together with two roots of the Gossypium barbadense
Sexual weakness

+

Citrus limon (L.) Burm.

(Rutaceae)
Citron (f)

Limon (w)
Leaf and Fruit
Drink a beverage made with little lemons and leaves
Cold
+

Fruit
Drink the juice
Cold
+

Use it with Carica papaya and Azadirachta indica
Cold
+

Leaf and fruit
Add the following to water: dry leaves of Musa paradisiaca, little unripe fruits and leaves of Citrus limon, leaves of Mangifera indica, leaves of Carica papaya, leaves of Cassia occidentalis, leaves of Ziziphus mauritiana and drink
Malaria

+

Eaten with Carica papaya
Malaria

Yellow fever
+

Use it with Guiera senegalensis
Asthma
+

Fruit
Drink the juice
Obesity
+

Drink the infusion together with Gossypium barbadense
High blood pressure
+

Dink the juice with honey
Liver
+

Cola cordifolia (Cav.)

R. Br. (Malvaceae)
Kaba/Taba
Leaf
Drink the infusion
Malnutrition

+
1

Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN85
Ptit cola (f)

Kola (w)

Goro (p)
Seed
Chew it
Stimulant
+

1

Drink the infusion
Cough
+

2

Combretum glutinosum

Perr. ex DC. (Combretaceae)
Chigommier (f)

Rat (w)
Leaf
Drink the infusion
Bronchitis
+

Drink the infusion
Sore throat
+

Drink the infusion
Cold
+

Leaf
Ingested together with Tamarindus indica fruit pulp
Blood pressure
+
+
9

Drink the infusion with Musa paradisiaca’s leaf and Annona senegalensis
Blood pressure

+

Drink the infusion
Diabetes
+

Use it with Tamarindus indica
Asthma
+

Leaf

Obesity
+

Combretum micranthum G. Don (Combretaceae) UNISGSEN10
Kinkeliba (f)

Sekhaw (w)

Drink the infusion
Bloodstream
+
+

Drink the infusion with these leaves together with Bambusa vulgaris leaves
High blood pressure

+

Drink the infusion without sugar
Malnutrition

+

Flower
Drink the infusion with cloves (Eugenia caryophillata) and Xylopia aethipioca seeds
Vision problems
+

Leaf
Drink the infusion
Bellyache

+

Dialium guineense Willd. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN17
Solom (w)
Bark
Make aerosol with the infusion
Asthma
+

1

Datura inoxia Mill.

(Solanaceae) UNISGSEN91
Datura (f)

Kubejaara
Leaf
Burn the wood and mix the wood ash with powdered leaf ash

External Use only—highly hallucinogenic if used internally
Allergies

+
1

Daucus carota L. (Apiaceae)
Carotte (f)
Leaf
Drink the infusion
Breast cancer
+

1

Dioscorea spp. (Dioscoreaceae) UNISGSEN83
Imuam

Igname (f)

Yam (w)
Root
Eat it
To gain weight

+
2

Leaf
Boil the leaves
Asthma

+

Put the oil on the hair
Hair
+

6

Fruit→oil
Topical application
Toothache

+

Pour in the ears
Earache
+

Use the palm oil together with Sooto noir (Ficus capensis Thumb.?) powdered root
Liver problems

+

Elaeis guineensis Jacq.

(Arecaceae)
Palmier à huile (f)

Tiir (w)

Attach the root of Moringa oleifera to the affected area and then cover the sore part with palm oil. Do not leave the root in place too long or it will cause an infection.
Rheumatism

+

Seeds
Wear a necklace made out of these seeds
Sore throat
+

Break the seed and eat the internal part
Gastritis

+

Root
Put them in wine and drink it
Sterility

+

Skin fungus
+

Fruit→oil
Use the palm oil together with peanuts (Arachis hypogea) and dab on hair.
Hair

+

Use it together with Vitellaria paradoxa butter and Carapa procera, dab on hair
Hair
+

Apply it on the cuts together with Hessawane
Tetanus
+

Drink the infusion with Jatropha curcas
Cough
+

1

Erythrina senegalensis DC. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN34
Erythrine du Senegal (f)

Dolliw fatu
Root
Drink the infusion
Syphilis

+

Drink the infusion
Menstrual pain

+

Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (Myrtaceae) UNISGSEN88
Eucaliptus (f)

Khotta bu tel (w)
Leaf
Drink the infusion
Blood pressure
+

1

Make an infusion and use it as mouthwash
Toothache
+

3

Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb. (Myrtaceae) UNISGSEN38
Girofle (f)

Xorompole (w)
Flower bud
Drink the infusion
Conjunctivitis
+

Make infusion with seeds of Xylopia aethiopica and Combretum micranthum flower and apply on eyes
Vision problems
+

Euphorbia balsamifera Ait. (Euphorbiaceae)
Salan

Salana

Salan Mbechi
Branch
Cut a branch and put the lymph on the wound
Wounds
+

3

Toothache
+

Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem. (Moraceae) UNISGSEN59
Yirif asotu
Leaf and bark
Drink the infusion
Low blood pressure

+
2

Leaf
Drink the infusion
Cold

+

Ficus sycomorus ssp. gnaphalocarpa (Miq.) C.C. Berg (Moraceae) UNISGSEN42
Ficus (f)

Sooto (m)
Root
Drink the infusion
Fatigue
+

2

Leaf
Powder branches and leaves together with Jamba Saboo leaves and drink some of it. Wash yourself with the rest of it. Do not eat fish in the meantime.
AIDS

+

Ficus umbellata Vahl (Moraceae) UNISGSEN68
Ñokolokotò (m)
Leaf
Use it with Cassia tora
Skin fungus

+
1

Leaf

Cough
+

4

Gossypium barbadense L. (Malvaceae)
Cotonnier (f)

Uiten (w)
Root
Drink the infusion together with lemon juice (Citrus limon)
High blood pressure
+

Drink the infusion made with two roots together with lemon juice

(Citrus limon)
Sexual weakness

+

Drink the infusion three times a day
Cough
+

13

Chew it and put it on the sore tooth
Toothache
+

Dry it and use it every day
Sores
+

Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel (Combretaceae) UNISGSEN18
Guiera du Senegal (f)

Ngeer (w)

Mamakumkoyo (m)
Leaf
Make an infusion together with the lemon leaves (Citrus limon)
Asthma
+

Drink the infusion with Valda pastille (industrial pastille based on menthol and eucalyptus essential oil)
Cold
+

Make infusion and apply to hair
Hair

+

Drink the infusion
Insomnia

+

Apply chewed leaf onto the wound or powder it and put it on
Wounds
+
+

Drink the infusion together with Mànganaso’s root (unidentified plant)
Intestinal worms

+

Infusion prepared with Adansonia digitata, Acacia albida, Parkia biglobosa, Annona senegalensis, Soora Soora (nonidentified plant), and Ficus sycomorus
Headache, sore throat, or cold taken as result of the wind

+

Leaf and Flower
Drink the infusion
Bloodstream
+

12

Flower

Flu
+

Fruit
Make a juice together with Adansonia digitata seeds
Fatigue
+
+

Flower

Lack of appetite

+

Hibiscus sabdariffa

L. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN12
Karkadè (f)

Bisaab (w)

Use it with Tamarindus indica and Acacia nilotica
Fatigue
+

Flower
Use it with Phaseolus vulgaris seeds
Anemia
+

Use it with seeds of Phaseolus vulgaris
Fatigue
+

Fruit
Remove the seeds and squeeze the fruit juice into the eyes.
Conjunctivitis

+

Leaf
Make an infusion together with the young leaves of Psidium guajava, drink it, and eat the leaves
Diarrhoea
+
+

Holarrhena floribunda

T. Durand & Schinz

(Apocynaceae) UNISGSEN67
Jarko (m)

Sexually transmitted diseases
+

2

Drink the tisane
Prostate

Abortion

+

Collect pieces of bark that face east during sunset and then drink it in 5 litres of water
Cancer
+

6

Collect pieces of bark that face east during sunset and then drink it in 5 litres of water
Syphilis
+

Jatropha curcas

L. (Euphorbiaceae)
Pignon d’Inde (f)

Tabanana (w)

Tabanano (m)
Bark and Root
Drink the infusion together with roots of Erythrina senegalensis in it
Cough
+

Put it in a small pan with Capsicum and drink
Hair loss

+

Powder it together with Kunjunburun and eat it on rice
Syphilis

+

Use it with Calotropis procera and Mànganaso (unidentified plant)
Yellow fever

+

Drink a tisane made with the bark together with Acacia tortilis.
Intestinal worms
+
+
5

Boil it in the water or put it into cold water for 2 hours and then drink it.
Fatigue
+

Make aerosol with it
Fatigue

+

Khaya senegalensis

(Desr.) A. Juss. (Meliaceae)
Cailsedrat (f)

Xai, kay (w)
Bark
Put in water and drink it
“Makes blood”
+

Make cold infusion and drink
Kidney problems

+

Anemia

+

Put the bark in a bottle and drink it.
Tuberculosis

+

Lawsonia inermis

L. (Lythraceae)

UNISGSEN69
Hennè (f)

Fuden (w)
Leaf?
Soak it together with the leaves of Psidium guajava and then drink it. The leaves needs to be fresh, not dried.
Stomachache

+
1

Leptadenia hastata Vatke (Apocynaceae)
Mboom (w)

Duto (m)
Leaf
Attach the leaves to the back together with hawk’s bones
Kidney problems

+
1

Root
Scrape at the bark, put it into water, and drink it
Snakebite

+

Lippia chevalieri Moldenke (Verbenaceae)
Samfitò
Leaf
Drink the infusion
Boils

+
1

Maerua crassifolia Forssk. (Capparaceae)
Sothiou (w)

Sothiou

suukar
Branch
Rub the stick on the teeth
Clean teeth
+

2

Chew the branch. Its bark tastes like sugar
Haemorrhoids

+

Leaf
Make an infusion, with 1.5 L water and a handful of leaves (some say to use only the ones on the floor, others to add salt to the infusion)
Tetanus
+
+
13

Leaf
Drink infusion
Poor memory
+

Mangifera indica

L. (Anacardiaceae)

UNISGSEN37
Manguier (f)

Màngo

joolaa (w)
Bark?
Hot infusion and inhale it together with peanut (Arachis hypogaea) leaves
General health
+

Bark
Make aerosol with it
Toothache
+

Leaf

Toothache
+
+

Leaf
Add to water: dry leaves of Musa paradisiaca, little unripe fruits and leaves of Citrus limon, leaves of Mangifera indica, leaves of Carica papaya, leaves of Cassia occidentalis, and leaves of Ziziphus mauritiana
Malaria

+

Fruit
Eat three fruits
Constipation
+

Manihot esculenta Crantz (Euphorbiaceae) UNISGSEN07
Manioc (f)

Gnambi (w)

Mañok (m)
Leaf
Drink the infusion together with milk curdle and then massage the chest
Lung cancer

+
1

Make aerosol with the infusion
Asthma

+

Leaf
Dry in the shade, powder, and eat with food
Diabetes
+

12

Leaf
Dry it in the shade and then crush it and eat in on rice
Diabetes
+

Seed
Dry the seeds on the fire, powder, mix with water, and drink
Diabetes
+

Moringa oleifera Lam. (Moringaceae) UNISGSEN39
Moringa (f)

Nebedaay (w)

Nebedayo (m)
Root
Grind the root and put it on the fire then dab and bandage
Sore knees
+

Bark
Soak the root in water for few seconds and then drink
Sore neck

+

Leaf
Put the leaf in water and wash your eyes with it
Eye allergies
+

Bark
Soak it in warm (not boiling) water and then drink it
Kidney problems

+

Root
Attach the root to the affected area, with Elaeis guineensis oil. Do not leave it too long or the root will cause an infection on the sore part.
Rheumatism

+

Leaf
Dry the leaves in the shade and eat it with Phaseolus vulgaris
Blood pressure
+

Seed
Put the seeds on the fire, grind into a powder and drink with water
Blood pressure
+

Leaf
Cut the leaves and dry them in the sun for 24 hours
General health
+

4

Musa paradisiaca

L. (Musaceae)
Bananier (f)
Fruit
Eat it
Stomachache
+

Leaf
Infusion with Combretum micranthum and Annona senegalensis
Blood pressure

+

Add to water: dry leaves of Musa paradisiaca, little unripe fruits and leaves of Citrus limon, leaves of Mangifera indica, leaves of Carica papaya, leaves of Cassia occidentalis, and leaves of Ziziphus mauritiana
Malaria

+

Leaf
Drink the infusion
Headache

+
3

Ocimum basilicum

L. (Lamiaceae) UNISGSEN13
Basilic (f)

Ngungun (m)
Seeds
Put the seed into the eyes and everything comes out
Eye problems

+

Leaf?
Use it with Calotropis procera
Rheumatism
+

Panicum miliaceum L. (Poaceae)
Mil (f)
Fruit
Use the powder (pollen) that falls down during the harvest to massage the body with water and salt. Leave it on half an hour and then wash it away.
Allergies

+
2

Apply millet powder together with lemon juice (Citrus limon) on the affected area
Herpes
+

Cut the bark into pieces, boil, and use the water as mouthwash
Toothache
+

2

Parinari macrophylla Sabine (Chrysobalanaceae)
New (w)

Tamba
Bark
Make an infusion and drink
Sore throat

+

Make an infusion and drink it before meals
Helps in digestion

+

Put the leaf powder on the burns
Burns
+

5

Leaf
Eat the leaves together with Carica papaya fruit
Yellow fever
+

Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.)

R.Br. ex G. Don (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN87
Minosa purpre (f)

Uul (w)

Nete, Nere (m)

Drink the infusion with powdered leaf and milk
Ulcer
+

Use it together with Acacia albida and Annona senegalensis
Depression

+

Use it with Acacia albida, Guiera senegalensis, Annona senegalensis, Adansonia digitata, Soora (nonidentified plant), and Ficus sycomorus
Headache, sore throat, and cold taken as result of the wind

+

Seed
Cook them with rice
Diabetes
+

Use with Hibiscus sabdariffa
Fatigue
+

3

Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN35
Harricot blanche (f)

Niebè (w)

Ñebbe
Seeds
Make an infusion with seven seeds and eat them
Breast cancer

+

Use it with Hibiscus sabdariffa
Anaemia
+

Leaf?
Eat it together with Moringa oleifera’s sundried leaves
Blood pressure
+

Put the red liquid inside the bark on the wound then powder the bark and put it on the wound
Wounds
+
+
3

Piliostigma reticulatum (DC.) Hochst. (Fabaceae)

UNISGSEN77
Fara (m)

Kankuran (p)
Bark
Use it with Annona senegalensis
Tuberculosis

+

Drink the infusion
Chronic cough

+

Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae)
Poivre noir (f)

Mex Pobare (w)
Seed
Drink boiled milk with pepper in it
Sore throat
+

Prosopis africana (Guill. & Perr.) Taub. (Fabaceae)
Yiir (w)
Bark
Drink the decoction
Anaemia
+

1

Leaf
Make aerosol useful to swat and then drink the water
Vertigo
+

1

Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN26
Banaana

golo (w)
Leaf
Make aerosol useful to swat and then drink the water
Pregnant women
+

Leaf
Drink the infusion
Bellyache

+

Young leaf
Make an infusion with Hibiscus sabdariffa leaves, drink it, and eat the leaves
Diarrhoea
+
+
10

Leaf
Drink the infusion
Bellyache

+

Psidium guajava

L. (Myrtaceae)

UNISGSEN31
Goyave (f)

Guyaab (w)

Use it together with Carica papaya leaf
Cystitis

+

Fruit
Eat the fruit
Bellyache

+

Drink the infusion
Diarrhoea

+

Leaf
Drink the infusion made with young leaves
Diarrhoea
+

Soak the leaves together with Lawsonia inermis, and then drink it. The leaves need to be fresh, not dried
Stomachache

+

Saba senegalensis (A.DC.) Pichon (Apocynaceae) UNISGSEN76
Màdd (w)

Mat mat (m)
Leaf
Drink the infusion
Intestinal worms
+

2

Fruit
Boil the fruit
Malnutrition

+

Leaf
Make an infusion
Skin fungus
+

5

Solanum lycopersicum L. (Solanaceae)
Tomate (f)

Tamaate (w)
Crush the leaf and put the juice and the leaf inside the ear
Earache
+

Fruit
Apply tomato sauce on the wound
Wounds
+
+

Eat it raw
Smallpox
+

Solanum tuberosum

L. (Solanaceae)
Pomme de terre (f)

Pombiteer (w)
Leaf
Make an infusion and give it to the 1-week-old baby to drink
Strong child
+

1

Fruit
Eat it raw
Menstrual pain
+

Use it with Combretum micranthum
Asthma
+

Fruit
Boil it and wash your eyes with it
Vision problems

+
4

Tamarindus indica L. (Fabaceae)
Tamarin (f)

Daqaar (w)

Add salt and rinse your mouth with it
Toothache

+

Karitè butter together with the bark of Tamarindus indica
Bruises
+

Bark
Use it with Hibiscus sabdariffa and the bark of Acacia nilotica
Fatigue
+

Use it with Combretum micranthum
Blood pressure
+

Tinospora bakis (A. Rich.)

Miers (Menispermaceae)
Bakis (w)
Root
Eat the root in a soup with a ripe Carica papaya and chicken
Yellow fever
+

1

Massage the neck
Sore neck (2)
+
+
11

Massage the body
Cold
+

Put it on the sore part
Bruises
+

Massage the chest with Karitè butter
Chronic cough
+

Add salt to the butter and dab on the back
Backache
+

Karitè butter together with the bark of Tamarindus indica
Bruises
+

Massage and dab the sore part of the body
Rheumatism
+

Vitellaria paradoxa

C.F. Gaertn. (Sapotaceae)
Karitè (f)
Seed→butter
Apply on herpes
Herpes
+

Use it with Carapa procera and Elaeis guineensis’ oil
Hair loss
+

Use it together with Carapa procera’s nut oil and dab it on the body three times a day
Backache

+

Dab on the hair
Stronger hair
+

Use it together with a stick to apply this part
Fractures
+

Add coffee and tyr (red oil)
To get rid of the dead blood, against fatigue
+

Use it with Aloe vera
Tuberculosis

+

Use it with Aloe vera
Hair loss
+

Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal)

A. Rich. (Annonaceae) UNISGSEN70
Diar (w)

Jar
Fruit

Seed
The seeds are used to prepare the “Touba Coffee”
Blood pressure
+

3

(f): French; (m): Mandingo; (p): Pulaar; (w): Wolof; Qs: quotations (number of informants, who have quoted a specific taxon); ?: uncertain information.

Documentation and evaluation of these home remedies are very important, since they represent a means of primary healthcare for most. Figure 2 illustrates the overlaps between the plants quoted in Casamance by healers and laypeople. Laypeople’s knowledge of medical plants is quite remarkable and confirms that the actual practice of household phytotherapy in Africa is much broader of what we sometimes label as “Traditional Medicine,” which is generally restricted to the knowledge, practices, and beliefs of healers. Moreover, despite living in the same village, while healers and laypeople use in large part the same medicinal plants (Figure 2), the actual plant reports (plant-based preparations used for a given health problem) are highly divergent (Figure 3). These findings confirm a remarkable “internal” variability of the African medical ethnobotanies, as a recent study in rural Mozambique also pointed out [37].

Figure 2: Overlap between the folk medicinal taxa quoted by healers and laypeople in Adeane.

Figure 3: Overlap between the medicinal plant reports quoted by healers and laypeople in Adeane (a single medicinal plant report is defined as “a given taxon x, prepared as y, used for z”).

3.3. Comparison between the Senegalese Medical Ethnobotanies of Turin and Adeane

A comparison between the laypeople’s medical ethnobotany in Turin and Adeane demonstrates that Senegalese in Senegal use more plants than Senegalese in Turin (Figure 4). This may be due to an objective difficulty to acquire all African plants used in country of origin in the new cultural environment in Italy and also to an adaptation process. Migrants moved in fact from their original rural areas in Senegal (where the use of herbal TMs is widespread) to urban environments in Europe, where practices of use of medicinal plants are only available within the context of Western modern herbalism and phytotherapy: Senegalese TM practitioners seem in fact not to be present in Turin. Moreover, migrants from Senegal in Turin also generally rely on Western pharmaceuticals.

Figure 4: Overlap between the botanical genera quoted as medicinally used in Turin and Adeane (by laypeople).

However, the large majority of the medicinal botanical genera recorded in Turin are also used in the country of origin, thus confirming some resilience of original practices following displacement into another landscape. The fact that a few other genera (twelve) have been quoted instead by migrants in Turin, but not in Adeane, could possibly be explained in two ways.

(i)Senegalese migrants living in Turin did not all come from the southern part of Senegal. For instance, a few of them may have brought plant uses to Turin that are unknown in the folk medicine of Southern Senegal.(ii)A few genera recorded quoted in Turin (i.e., Hibiscus, Zingiber) may represent the result of cross-cultural exchanges of TMs with other migrant populations in Turin, especially with the North African migrants, who also share the same religion, and with members of the Chinese migrant community who own ethnic food markets in Turin.

Out of this comparative study, a few plant families have emerged as being integral to the TM practices of the Senegalese study participants both in Turin and Adeane. In particular, a great variety of Fabaceae species were quoted as having medicinal applications in Turin (7 species) and Adeane (15 species). The second and third most represented botanical families amongst the Turin participants were Combretaceae and Malvaceae, with 5 and 3 species quoted, respectfully. In Adeane, however, Malvaceae was the second most quoted family (5 species), followed by Apocynaceae and Solanaceae (4 species each), and then Combretaceae, Myrtaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Meliaceae, represented by 3 species each.

Interestingly, despite the presence of a thriving Senegalese community in the north Italian landscape for more than 30 years, relatively few Italian medicinal plants appear to have been incorporated into the TM practices of this group. Take, for example, the notable lack of incorporation of several European mints (Lamiaceae) in the TM practices of the Senegalese in Turin. Various Lamiaceae species, such as mint, basil, peppermint, rosemary, thyme, horehound, and oregano, grow in the wild and/or are cultivated in the Italian countryside and the use of such species for medicinal purposes dates back to more than 2,000 years ago in this region, as evidenced by their presence in the ancient textbooks of the Mediterranean Materia Medica [38]. Moreover, the important use of Lamiaceae species as medicinal plants is crucial also in the medico-ethnobotanical literature of Piedmont ([39] and references therein). The conspicuous absence of Lamiaceae uses in the Senegalese migrant community is maybe reflective of their isolation from the Italian environmental and medical landscape, which may have been further enhanced by the characteristic male composition of the Senegalese community in Italy.

4. Conclusion

Our study illustrates that the herbal medicines used by the Senegalese in Turin are very different from those of the Italian herbal landscape and that the migrant population in Turin is instead reliant on the undependable trade and movement of plant materials from their homeland to ethnic markets in the city. This shows maybe a scarce integration of this African community into the host society.

Moreover, the access and availability of important original medicines, especially medicinal foods, are greatly diminished in Turin, creating a significant disruption in their TM system. This may also have been influenced by the general lack of female Senegalese migrants, who would typically be the ones in charge of TM and “health” foods in the domestic setting.

The issues relevant to primary TM practice in migrant communities are often compounded by a lack of specific health policies, which are able to address migrant needs. This problem is, of course, not isolated to the case of migrants in Italy, but is also relevant to many other Western countries, where the healthcare needs of burgeoning migrant populations are often conspicuously absent in health policy and legislation.

By having a better understanding of both the migrant folk pharmacopoeia and the state of TK transmission with regards to health, more culturally sensitive health policies could be developed. In particular, the increasing occurrence of newcomers in Italy should foster more pluralistic approaches in the management of CAMs by the regional authorities, as well as consequently addressing measures aimed to improve the information on potentialities and risks of “home-made” herbal remedies.

Acknowledgments

Special thanks are due to all of the study participants, who generously agreed to share their knowledge with the first author (R. Ellena). In particular, the authors would like to acknowledge Abdou Faye, Centre d’Education et de Formation Polyvalente, Ziguinchor, Senegal; the NGOs Jamm Italia and Jamm Senegal; the following people: Mamath Ndiaye, Lamine Mane, Adamà Signatte, Kebaman, Majorò Diop, Bu, Amadou Diop, Mamath Ndiaye’s grandmother, Awa Diagne, Awa’s grandmother, Aicha Ndiaye, Vincent, Modu Modu, Cheik Omar, Khadim, Crip Crap, Mariama, Rama, Fatou, Amadou Diagne, Kabra, Sebia Mendy, Gnana Sahonsla, Ina Signatte, Bin Tagiata, Mohammed Buasi, Solol, Abdullaye, and Abdou Gassama.

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