There are 230 to 240 known
The United Nations World Health Organization estimates that as many as 5.6 billion people, 80% of the world population, utilize herbal medicine for primary health care [
Taxonomy of
Kingdom | Plantae |
Subkingdom | Tracheobionta |
Superdivision | Spermatophyta |
Division | Magnoliophyta |
Class | Magnoliopsida |
Subclass | Asteridae |
Order | Asterales |
Family | Asteraceae |
Genus |
|
Species |
|
Nutritional facts about
Plant |
Energy |
Moisture |
Protein |
Fat |
Carbohydrate |
Fiber |
Ash |
Calcium |
Phosphorus |
Iron |
Carotene |
Thiamine |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Raw | 43 | 85.1 | 3.8 | 0.5 | 8.4 | 3.9 | 2.2 | 340 | 67 | — | 1 800 | — |
Dried | 33 | 88.6 | 2.8 | 0.6 | 6 | 1.3 | 2 | 111 | 39 | 2.3 | — | — |
“—” denotes not detectable.
All parts of
As summarized in Table
Ethnomedical information about
Disorder | Plant partb | Mode of use | Region/Country | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Stomachache | LE | Decoction | India |
[ |
Colics | WP | Decoction | Africa |
[ |
Catarrh | WP | Juice or decoction; taken orally | Cuba | [ |
Diarrhea | LE and WP | Fresh leaves or Decoction | Africa |
[ |
Constipation | WP | Decoction | Africa | [ |
Dysentery/Bacillary |
WP | Decoction | Africa |
[ |
Choleretic | WP | Decoction | Middle America | [ |
Anti-inflammatory | WP | Not stated | China |
[ |
Asthma | WP | Decoction or maceration; taken orally | Cuba |
[ |
Antirheumatic | RT and WP | Juice and decoction | Hong Kong |
[ |
Acute appendicitis | WP | Decoction | Hong Kong | [ |
Enteritis | WP | Decoction | Africa |
[ |
Pruritus | WP | Decoction | Hong Kong | [ |
Conjunctivitis | WP | Decoction | Africa |
[ |
Otitis | WP | Decoction | Africa |
[ |
Pharyngitis | WP | Decoction | Africa |
[ |
Gastritis | WP | Juice; taken orally | Cuba | [ |
Diabetes | WP | Decoction; taken orally | Cuba |
[ |
Headache | WP | Decoction | Bafia, Cameroon | [ |
Diuretic | WP | Decoction | Middle America | [ |
Hypotensive | WP | Decoction; taken orally | Bafia, Cameroon | [ |
Colds | LE and WP | Fresh or decoction | China |
[ |
Yellow Fever | LE and WP | Fresh or decoction | China |
[ |
Influenza | LE and WP | Fresh or decoction | China |
[ |
Acute infectious hepatitis | WP | Decoction | Hong Kong | [ |
Intestinal worms | WP | Decoction | Africa | [ |
Malaria | RT and WP | Juice | Africa |
[ |
Eye Infection | LE and WP | Fresh or juice | Uganda |
[ |
Antimicrobial | AP | Decoction for drinking; bathing/external use | Trinidad and Tobago | [ |
Pulmonary tuberculosis | WP | Decoction or maceration; taken orally | Cuba |
[ |
Bacterial infections in |
WP | Decoction | Trinidad and Tobago | [ |
Renal infection | LE | Decoction; taken orally | Cuba | [ |
Sore throat | LE and WP | Fresh or decoction | China |
[ |
Cough | WP | Decoction; taken orally | Cuba |
[ |
Coolness of the uterus | WP | Decoction; taken orally | Cuba | [ |
Menstrual irregularities | WP | Decoction; taken orally | Cuba | [ |
Dysmenorrhea | WP | Decoction | Bafia, Cameroon | [ |
|
WP | Decoction | Africa | [ |
Hemorrhoids | WP | Decoction | Hong Kong | [ |
Nose bleeds | LE and WP | Fresh or decoction | China |
[ |
Stomach ulcers | LE and WP | Maceration or juice; taken orally | Cuba |
[ |
Cuts, burns, and skin problems | LE and WP | Fresh plant or decoction; topical |
Trinidad and Tobago |
[ |
Wounds | WP | Crushed herb | China |
[ |
Snake bites | WP | Pulverized herb | China | [ |
Interest in basic research and application of
Aliphatic natural products isolated from
S. N. | IUPAC names | Common names | Structure | Plant part (country) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Heneicosane | CH3(CH2)19CH3 | Aerial (Tanzania) | [ | |
|
Docosane | CH3(CH2)20CH3 | Aerial (Tanzania) | [ | |
|
Tricosane | CH3(CH2)21CH3 | Aerial (Tanzania) | [ | |
|
Tetracosane | CH3(CH2)22CH3 | Aerial (Tanzania) | [ | |
|
Pentacosane | CH3(CH2)23CH3 | Aerial (Tanzania) | [ | |
|
Hexacosane | CH3(CH2)24CH3 | Aerial (Tanzania) | [ | |
|
Heptacosane | CH3(CH2)25CH3 | Aerial (Tanzania) | [ | |
|
Octacosone | CH3(CH2)26CH3 | Aerial (Tanzania); not found |
[ | |
|
Nonacosane | CH3(CH2)27CH3 | Aerial (Tanzania); not found |
[ | |
|
Triacontane | CH3(CH2)28CH3 | Aerial (Tanzania); not found |
[ | |
|
Hentriacontane | CH3(CH2)29CH3 | Aerial (Tanzania); not found |
[ | |
|
Dotriacontane | CH3(CH2)30CH3 | Aerial (Tanzania); not found |
[ | |
|
Tritriacontane | CH3(CH2)31CH3 | Aerial (Tanzania); not found |
[ | |
|
2-Butoxy-ethanol | CH3(CH2)3OCH2CH2OH | Whole (Taiwan) | [ | |
|
Tetracosan-1-ol | CH3(CH2)22CH2OH | Aerial (Tanzania) | [ | |
|
Hexacosan-1-ol | CH3(CH2)24CH2OH | Aerial (Tanzania) | [ | |
|
1-Octacosanol | CH3(CH2)26CH2OH | Aerial (Tanzania) | [ | |
|
1-Hentriacontanol | CH3(CH2)29CH2OH | Not found (Taiwan) | [ | |
|
Tetradecanoic acid | Myristic acid | CH3(CH2)12CO2H | Aerial (Tanzania) | [ |
|
Hexadecanoic acid | Palmitic acid | CH3(CH2)14CO2H | Aerial (Tanzania) | [ |
|
Octadecanoic acid | Stearic acid | CH3(CH2)16CO2H | Aerial (Tanzania) | [ |
|
Eicosanoic acid | Arachidic acid | CH3(CH2)18CO2H | Aerial (Tanzania) | [ |
|
Docosanoic acid | Behenic acid | CH3(CH2)20CO2H | Leaves (Philippines) | [ |
|
2-butenedioic acid |
|
Aerial (China) | [ | |
|
|
Oleic acid |
|
Aerial (Tanzania) | [ |
|
|
Elaidic acid |
|
Leaves (Philippines) | [ |
|
|
Linolic acid or Linoleic acid |
|
Aerial (Tanzania); whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
|
|
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
( |
Ethyl linoleate |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
( |
Methyl linolenate |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
( |
Ethyl linolenate |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
( |
2-Butoxyethyl oleate |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
2-Butoxyethyl linoleate |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ | |
|
( |
2-Butoxyethyl linoleate |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
1,7 |
Heptadeca-2 |
|
Not found (China) | [ |
|
1,11-Tridecadiene-3,5,7,9-tetrayne |
|
Roots (not stated) | [ | |
|
1-Tridecene-3,5,7,9,11-pentayne | Pentayneene |
|
Leaves (not stated) and |
[ |
|
5-Tridecene-7,9,11-triyne-3-ol |
|
not found (Egypt) | [ | |
|
2,10,12-Tridecatriene-4,6,8-triyn-1-ol |
|
Part not specified (Not stated) | [ | |
|
2,12-Tridecadiene-4,6,8,10-tetrayn-1-ol | 1,11-Tridecadiene-3,5,7,9- |
|
Roots (Not stated); not found |
[ |
|
2,12-Tridecadiene-4,6,8,10-tetraynal | 1,11-Tridecadiene-3,5,7,9- |
|
Roots (Germany) | [ |
|
2,12-Tridecadiene-4,6,8,10-tetrayn-1-ol, 1-acetate | 1,11-Tridecadiene-3,5,7,9- |
|
Roots (not stated) | [ |
|
(5 |
|
Aerial (China) | [ | |
|
(6 |
|
Aerial (China) | [ | |
|
( |
1,2-Dihydroxy-5( |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
( |
1,3-Dihydroxy-6( |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
(2 |
Safynol |
|
Not found (Egypt and China) | [ |
|
5,7,9,11-Tridecatetrayne-1,2-diol | 1,2-Dihydroxytrideca- |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
( |
( |
|
Aerial (Japan) | [ |
|
(4 |
2- |
|
Aerial (USA); whole (Taiwan); |
[ |
|
(4 |
3- |
|
Aerial (USA and China); whole |
[ |
|
3-Hydroxy-6-tetradecene-8,10,12-triynyl- |
|
|
Whole (Mexico) | [ |
|
1-(Hydroxymethyl)-4,6,8,10-dodecatetrayne- |
Cytopiloyne, |
|
Whole (Taiwan); leaves (Taiwan) | [ |
|
2- |
|
Leaves (Brazil) | [ | |
|
( |
2- |
|
Aerial (China and Japan) | [ |
|
1-[[(Carboxyacetyl)oxy] |
|
Aerial (Japan) | [ | |
|
(4 |
|
Aerial (Japan) | [ | |
|
(4 |
|
Aerial (Japan) | [ | |
|
(5 |
1-Phenylhepta-1,3-diyn-5en |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
7-Phenyl-2( |
|
Roots (not stated); Aerial (China) | [ | |
|
7-Phenyl-2( |
|
Roots (not stated; Brazil) | [ | |
|
7-Phenyl-4,6-heptadiyn-2-ol | Pilosol A |
|
Whole (Taiwan); aerial (China) | [ |
|
7-Phenylhepta-4,6-diyn-1,2-diol |
|
Aerial (China) | [ | |
|
1,3,5-Heptatriyn-1-yl-benzene | 1-Phenylhepta-1,3,5-triyne |
|
Leaves (not stated); leaves of tissue culture |
[ |
|
7-Phenyl-2,4,6-heptatriyn-1-ol |
|
Leaves (not stated); aerial (China) | [ | |
|
7-Phenyl-2,4,6-heptatriyn-1-ol-acetate |
|
Leaves (not stated) | [ | |
|
5-(2-Phenylethynyl)-2-thiophene methanol |
|
Aerial (China) | [ | |
|
5-(2-Phenylethynyl)-2 |
|
Aerial (China) | [ | |
|
3- |
|
Leaves (Cameroon) | [ | |
|
1-Phenyl-1,3-diyn-5-en-7-ol-acetate |
|
Leaves (Brazil) | [ |
S.N. denotes serial number.
Flavonoids isolated from
S. N. | IUPAC names | Common names | Structure | Plant part |
References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
2- |
Sulfuretin |
|
Aerial (China) | [ |
|
2- |
Aurone, |
|
Aerial (China) | [ |
|
2- |
Aurone, |
|
Leaves (Japan and China); aerial (China) | [ |
|
2- |
Aurone, |
|
Leaves (Japan) | [ |
|
6- |
Aurone, |
|
Leaves (Not stated); aerial (China) | [ |
|
6- |
Aurone, ( |
|
Leaves (China) | [ |
|
6- |
Aurone, |
|
Leaves (not stated); aerial (China) | [ |
|
2- |
Aurone, |
|
Leaves (not stated); aerial (China) | [ |
|
2- |
Aurone, |
|
Aerial (China) | [ |
|
2- |
Aurone, |
|
Leaves (Japan) | [ |
|
1- |
Chalcone, |
|
Aerial (China) | [ |
|
1-(2,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)- |
Butein |
|
Aerial (China) | [ |
|
3-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)- |
Okanin |
|
Leaves (China) | [ |
|
3-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)- |
Okanin |
|
Leaves (Germany); flowers (Germany) | [ |
|
3-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)- |
Okanin |
|
Flowers (Germany); leaves (Japan) | [ |
|
Okanin 4′- |
|
Flowers (Germany) | [ | |
|
1- |
Okanin |
|
Aerial (China) | [ |
|
Okanin 4′- |
|
Leaves (Germany) | [ | |
|
Okanin 4′- |
|
Aerial (China) | [ | |
|
1- |
Okanin |
|
Leaves (Germany) | [ |
|
Okanin 4′- |
|
Leaves (Germany) | [ | |
|
Okanin |
|
Leaves (Germany) | [ | |
|
Okanin |
|
Leaves (Germany) | [ | |
|
Okanin4′- |
|
Flower (Germany) | [ | |
|
Okanin 3′,4′-di- |
|
Flower (Germany) | [ | |
|
1- |
Okanin |
|
Leaves (Germany); aerial (China) | [ |
|
Okanin 4-methyl ether- |
|
Aerial (China) | [ | |
|
Chalcone, 2′,4′,6′-trimethoxy- |
Not found | Leaves (China) | [ | |
|
2-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)-2,3- |
Okanin, |
|
Leaves (China) | [ |
|
2-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)- |
|
Aerial (China) | [ | |
|
5,7-Dihydroxy-2- |
Apigenin |
|
Aerial (Tanzania; China) | [ |
|
7-( |
Apigenin |
|
Aerial (Tanzania) | [ |
|
2-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)- |
Luteolin |
|
Aerial (Tanzania; China; Vietnam) | [ |
|
2-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)- |
Luteolin 7- |
|
Aerial (Tanzania) | [ |
|
5,7-Dimethoxy-6- |
5- |
|
Aerial (Uganda) | [ |
|
3-( |
Astragalin; |
|
Aerial (China) | [ |
|
Kaempferol 3- |
Not found | Aerial (Vietnam) | [ | |
|
2-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)- |
Axillaroside |
|
Aerial (China) | [ |
|
5,7-Dihydroxy-2- |
Centaureidin |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
7-( |
Centaurein |
|
Aerial (Japan); whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
5-Hydroxy-2- |
Eupatorin, |
|
Not found (China) | [ |
|
2-(3,4-Dimethoxyphenyl)-7- |
|
Not found (Japan) | [ | |
|
7-( |
|
Not found (Japan) | [ | |
|
Isorhamnetin 3- |
Not found | Aerial (Vietnam) | [ | |
|
7- |
Luteoside |
|
Aerial (China) | [ |
|
Luteolin 3- |
|
Aerial (Tanzania) | [ | |
|
5,7-Dihydroxy-2- |
Quercetagetin 3,6,3′-trimethyl ether |
|
Aerial (China) | [ |
|
6-((2S,3S,4S,5S)- |
Quercetagetin 3,7,3′- |
|
Aerial (China) | [ |
|
7-( |
Jacein; Quercetin 3,6,3′- |
|
Aerial (Japan; China); whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
2-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)- |
Quercetin |
|
Aerial (China); leaves (China); whole (China) | [ |
|
2-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)- |
Quercetin 3- |
|
Aerial (Tanzania; Japan); Leaves (China); Whole (China) | [ |
|
2-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)- |
Quercetin 3- |
|
Aerial (Tanzania; China; Japan); Leaves (Japan) | [ |
|
2-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)- |
Quercetin 3- |
|
Aerial (Tanzania; Japan) | [ |
|
3- |
Quercetin 3- |
|
Aerial (Japan); Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
7-( |
Quercetin 3,3′- |
|
Roots (Brazil) | [ |
|
7- |
Quercetin 3,3′- |
|
Roots (Brazil) | [ |
|
7- |
Quercetin 3,4′- |
|
Aerial (China) | [ |
|
2-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)-3- |
Isoquercitrin |
|
Aerial (Japan; China) | [ |
|
Quercetin 3- |
|
Aerial (not stated) | [ | |
|
Quercetin 3- |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
Terpenoids isolated from
S. N. | IUPAC names | Common names | Structure | Plant part (Country) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
3,7,11,11-Tetramethylbicyclo |
Bicyclogermacrene |
|
Leaves (Brazil) | [ |
|
4,11,11-Trimethyl-8- |
|
|
Leaves (Brazil) | [ |
|
1-Methyl-5-methylene-8- |
Germacrene D |
|
Leaves (Brazil) | [ |
|
4-(1,5-Dimethyl-4- |
|
|
Leaves (Brazil) | [ |
|
Decahydro-1,1,4-trimethyl-7- |
|
|
Leaves (Brazil) | [ |
|
2,6,6,9-Tetramethyl-1,4,8- |
|
|
Leaves (Brazil) | [ |
|
1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,8a-Octahydro- |
|
|
Leaves (Brazil) | [ |
|
1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,8a- |
Selina-3,7(11)-diene |
|
Leaves (Brazil) | [ |
|
(2 |
Phytol |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2- |
Phytanic acid |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2- |
Phythyl heptanoate |
|
Leaves |
[ |
|
(3 |
Campestrol |
|
Aerial (Tanzania) | [ |
|
Not found | Phytosterin-B | Not found | Not found (Taiwan; Egypt) | [ |
|
Stigmast-5-en-3-ol |
|
|
Aerial (Tanzania); |
[ |
|
13,14,15,16,17- |
|
|
Not found (Egypt) | [ |
|
5 |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ | |
|
5 |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ | |
|
Stigmasta-5,22-dien-3-ol | Stigmasterol |
|
Not found (Taiwan); |
[ |
|
Lup-20(29)-en-3-ol | Lupeol |
|
Not found (Egypt) | [ |
|
Lup-20(29)-en-3-ol, acetate | Lupeol acetate |
|
Not found (Egypt) | [ |
|
Olean-12-en-3-ol |
|
|
Not found (Egypt) | [ |
|
5,9,13-Trimethyl- |
Friedelan-3 |
|
Aerial (Tanzania) | [ |
|
5,9,13-Trimethyl- |
Friedelin; friedelan-3-one |
|
Aerial (Tanzania) | [ |
|
2,6,10,15,19,23- |
Squalene |
|
Aerial (Tanzania); |
[ |
|
|
|
|
Leaves (Not stated) | [ |
Phenylpropanoids isolated from
S. N. | IUPAC names | Common names | Structure | Plant part (country) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
3-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-propenoic acid |
|
|
Whole (Japan) | [ |
|
2-Methoxy-4-(2-propen-1-yl)-phenol | Eugenol |
|
Leaves and roots (Japan) | [ |
|
3-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)- |
Ferulic acid |
|
Whole (Japan) | [ |
|
3-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)-2-propenoic acid | Caffeic acid |
|
Whole and aerial (Japan) | [ |
|
3-Propyl-3[(2,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)- |
3-Propyl-3-(2,4,5-trimethoxy)benzyloxy-pentan-2,4-dione |
|
Leaves (India) | [ |
|
3-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)-2- |
Caffeate, ethyl |
|
Not found (Taiwan); whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
2-[[3-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)-1-oxo-2-propenyl]oxy]- |
|
|
Leaves (Japan) | [ |
|
2- |
|
|
Leaves (Japan) | [ |
|
3- |
|
|
Leaves (Japan) | [ |
|
4-(Acetyloxy)-3-[[3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)- |
|
Not found (Japan) | [ | |
|
3-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)-tetrahydro-4-hydroxy-4- |
3- |
|
Leaves (Japan) | [ |
|
3-[[3-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)-1-oxo-2- |
Chlorogenic acid |
|
Aerial (Japan); whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
4-[[3-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)-1-oxo-2-propen-1-yl]oxy]- |
4- |
|
Aerial (Japan) | [ |
|
3,4-bis[[2( |
3,4-Di- |
|
Aerial (Japan); Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
3,4-bis[[2( |
3,5-Di- |
|
Aerial (Japan); whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
3,4-bis[[(2 |
4,5-Di- |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
3-[4-[[-6- |
|
|
Leaves (Japan) | [ |
|
3-[4-[[2- |
|
|
Leaves (Japan); aerial (China) | [ |
|
6,7-Dihydroxy-2-chromenone | Esculetin, cichorigenin |
|
Not found (Egypt) | [ |
Aromatic compounds isolated from
S. N. | IUPAC names | Common names | Structure | Plant part (country) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
1,2-Benzenediol | Pyrocatechin |
|
Whole (Japan) | [ |
|
4-Ethyl-1,2-benzenediol | Pyrocatechol |
|
Whole (Japan) | [ |
|
Dimethoxyphenol; |
|
Roots (Japan) | [ | |
|
4-Ethenyl-2-methoxy-phenol |
|
|
Whole (Japan) | [ |
|
2-Hydroxy-6-methylbenzaldehyde | 6-Methyl-salicylaldehyde |
|
Whole (Japan) | [ |
|
Benzene-ethanol | 2-Phenyl-ethanol |
|
Whole (Japan) | [ |
|
4-Hydroxy-3-methoxy-benzaldehyde | Vanillin |
|
Aerial (Japan) | [ |
|
3-Hydroxy-4-methoxy-benzaldehyde | Vanillin, |
|
Leaves (Japan) | [ |
|
4-Hydroxybenzoic acid |
|
|
Whole (Japan) | [ |
|
2-Hydroxybenzoic acid | Salicylic acid |
|
Stem and roots (Japan) | [ |
|
3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid | Protocatechuic acid |
|
Whole (Japan) | [ |
|
4-Hydroxy-3methoxybenzoic acid | Vanillic acid |
|
Aerial (Uganda); |
[ |
|
3,4,5-Trihydroxybenzoic acid | Gallic acid |
|
Whole (China) | [ |
Porphyrins isolated from
S. N. | IUPAC names | Common names | Structure | Plant part (country) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
(2 |
AristophyllC |
|
Leaves |
[ |
|
(2 |
Bidenphytin A |
|
Leaves |
[ |
|
(2 |
Bidenphytin B |
|
Leaves |
[ |
|
(2 |
(132 |
|
Leaves |
[ |
|
(2 |
(132 |
|
Leaves |
[ |
|
(2 |
(132 |
|
Leaves |
[ |
|
(2 |
(132 |
|
Leaves |
[ |
|
(2 |
Pheophytin A |
|
Leaves |
[ |
Other compounds isolated from
S.N. | IUPAC names | Common names | Structure | Plant part (country) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
3,7-Dihydro-1,3,7- |
Caffeine |
|
Aerial (Uganda) | [ |
|
1-((2 |
Thymidine |
|
Not found (China) | [ |
|
1-(2-Thienyl)-ethanone | 2-Acetyl-thiophene |
|
Roots (Germany) | [ |
|
(2 |
Heptanyl 2- |
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
2-[(3 |
|
|
Whole (Taiwan) | [ |
|
7- |
Not found | Leaves (China) | [ |
Chemical constituents of
S.N. | Name | Classification | Molecular formula | Biological activities |
---|---|---|---|---|
|
Centaureidin [ |
Flavonoid | C18H16O8 | Anti-listerial [ |
|
Centaurein [ |
Flavonoid | C24H26O13 | Anti-listerial [ |
|
Luteolin [ |
Flavonoid | C15H10O6 | Anti-viral [ |
|
Butein [ |
Flavonoid | C15H12O5 | Anti-leishmanial [ |
|
1,2-Dihydroxytrideca-5,7,9,11-tetrayne [ |
Polyyne | C13H12O2 | Anti-angiogeneic [ |
|
1,3-Dihyroxy-6( |
Polyyne | C14H16O2 | Anti-angiogeneic [ |
|
1,2-Dihyroxy-5( |
Polyyne | C13H14O2 | Anti-angiogeneic [ |
|
1-Phenylhepta-1,3,5-triyne [ |
Polyyne | C13H8 | Anti-microbial [ |
|
Linoleic acid [ |
Fatty acid | C18H32O2 | Anti-viral (100) |
|
Ethyl caffeate [ |
Phenylpropanoid | C11H12O4 | Anti-inflammatory [ |
|
2- |
Polyyne | C19H20O7 | Immunosuppressive and Anti-inflammatory [ |
|
2- |
Polyyne | C19H22O7 | Anti-diabetic [ |
|
3- |
Polyyne | C20H26O7 | Anti-diabetic [ |
|
2- |
Polyyne | C19H24O7 | Anti-diabetic [ |
|
Quercetin 3- |
Flavonoid | C21H20O12 | Anti-inflammatory [ |
|
3,5-Di- |
Phenylpropanoid | C25H24O12 | Anti-viral [ |
|
4,5-Di- |
Phenylpropanoid | C25H24O12 | Anti-viral [ |
|
3,4-Di- |
Phenylpropanoid | C25H24O12 | Anti-viral [ |
|
Quercetin 3,3′-dimethyl ether 7- |
Flavonoid | C21H20O11 | Anti-malarial [ |
|
Quercetin 3,3′-dimethyl ether-7- |
Flavonoid | C21H20O12 | Anti-malarial [ |
|
1-Phenyl-1,3-diyn-5-en-7-ol-acetate [ |
Polyyne | C15H12O2 | Anti-malarial [ |
|
Heptanyl 2- |
Miscellaneous | C18H44O10 | Antioxidant [ |
|
3- |
Saccharide | C27H38O15 | Antioxidant [ |
|
Quercetin 3- |
Flavonoid | C27H38O15 | Antioxidant [ |
|
Chlorogenic acid [ |
Phenolic | C16H26O9 | Antioxidant [ |
|
Jacein [ |
Flavonoid | C24H26O13 | Antioxidant [ |
|
( |
Polyyne | C13H8O2 | Anti-malarial and Antibacterial [ |
As outlined in Table
Folkloric reports revealed the possible antitumor efficacy of
Consistent with the antitumor activities of
In addition to anti-tumor flavones, polyynes found in
A further study also reported the anti-inflammatory activity as well as the antiallergic activity of
Phenolics and polyynes are major anti-inflammatory phytochemicals present in
Chiang and colleagues showed that ethyl caffeate (
Structure and activity relationship studies of ethyl caffeate using
Compound | Concentration |
NF- |
---|---|---|
Ethyl caffeate | 50 | 100% |
Ethyl 3,4-dihydroxyhydrocinnamate | 100 | 100% |
Catechol | 400 | 100% |
Ethyl cinnamate | 400 | No |
Pereira and colleagues assessed the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities of
Anti-diabetic agents are primarily developed from plants and other natural resources [
Etiologically speaking, T1D is caused by autoimmune-mediated destruction of pancreatic
Among the three polyynes found in
Also importantly, cytopiloyne partially depleted CD4+ rather than CD8+ T cells in NOD mice [
Apoptosis in cocultures of T cells and pancreatic
Cell/Medium | % Apoptosis and |
---|---|
CD4+ T cells/control medium | <4 |
CD4+ T cells/with PBS-treated |
2 |
CD4+ T cells/with cytopiloyne-treated |
18 |
CD4+ T cells/with cytopiloyne-treated |
7 |
CD8+ T cells/control medium | 4 |
CD4+ T cells/with PBS-treated |
4 |
CD8+ T cells/with cytopiloyne-treated |
4 |
CD8+ T cells/with cytopiloyne-treated |
4 |
In addition, Chang and colleagues showed that cytopiloyne dose-dependently inhibited T-cell proliferation stimulated by IL-2 plus Con A or anti-CD3 antibody, using [3H] thymidine incorporation assay [
Overall, the mechanism of action of cytopiloyne and, probably, its derivatives in T1D includes inhibition of T-cell proliferation, skewing of Th cell differentiation, and partial depletion of Th cells. Due to the anti-diabetic mechanisms of action, it was hypothesized that cytopiloyne protects NOD mice from diabetes by a generalized suppression of adaptive immunity. To evaluate this hypothesis, ovalbumin (Ova) was used as a T-cell dependent antigen to prime NOD mice, which had already received cytopiloyne or PBS vehicle. Ova priming boosted similar anti-Ova titers in cytopiloyne-treated mice and PBS-treated mice, but a difference in immunoglobulin isotype was observed in the two groups. Thus, it was concluded that cytopiloyne is an immunomodulatory compound rather than an immunosuppressive compound [
T2D is a chronic metabolic disease with serious complications resulting from defects in either insulin secretion, insulin action, or both [
The studies detailed above point to the conclusion that cytopiloyne and related polyynes (compounds
Free radicals can damage cellular components via a series of chemical reactions [
Radical scavenging activities of
Extracts/control | DPPH assay, |
NBT/hypoxanthine |
---|---|---|
Quercetin | 1.98 | 1.5 |
Ascorbic acid | 6.34 | Not determined |
|
8.97 | Not determined |
Ethyl acetate extract | 13.83 | 59.7 |
Butanol extract | 16.69 | 11.4 |
Water extract | >100 | >100 |
Radical scavenging activity of secondary metabolites from
Metabolite (Table |
DPPH assay, IC50 ( |
---|---|
|
Not determined |
|
5.3 |
|
6.8 |
|
10.5 |
|
3.3 |
|
3.8 |
|
Not determined |
|
Not determined |
Quercetin | 2.56 |
Caffeic acid | 8.90 |
Measurement of free radical scavenging activities is one way of assessing the antioxidant activities of
A complementary study by Muchuweti and colleagues determined phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and the phenolic profile of
Essential oils from
Antioxidant activity of the essential oils and water extracts from
Extract | IC50 ( |
---|---|
Leaf essential oils | 47 |
Flower essential oils | 50 |
Leaf extract | 61 |
Flower extract | 172 |
It can be inferred from Table
As pointed out in the discussion of its anti-diabetic activities (Section
Chang and colleagues were the first to report the effect of the butanol extract of
An extended study presented by Chiang and colleagues showed that compound
The anti-diabetic role of cytopiloyne was extensively discussed above (Section
The phytochemical constituents of
The use of chemical drugs against pathogens has resulted in drug-resistant mutants. Examples of drug resistance can be found in the species of the
Emergence of multiple antibiotic-resistant microbes is becoming a global threat to public health and a challenge to disease treatment. For instance, penicillin is commonly used to combat a food-borne intracellular bacterium
Aside from the indirect antibacterial action mentioned above, extract and/or compounds of
Antibacterial activity of essential oils and flower extracts from
Strain | Mean zone of inhibition (mm) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Leaf essential oil | Flower essential oil | Leaf extract | Flower extract | |
|
12.7 ± 0.3 | 8.7 ± 0.3 | 10.2 ± 0.2 | 10.8 ± 0.3 |
|
17.3 ± 1.9 | 11.7 ± 0.2 | 10.9 ± 0.2 | 10.3 ± 0.2 |
|
19.0 ± 1.4 | 11.2 ± 0.3 | 11.8 ± 0.4 | 18.5 ± 1.0 |
|
12.3 ± 0.7 | 10.8 ± 0.2 | 10.5 ± 0.4 | 7.7 ± 0.2 |
|
13.7 ± 0.4 | 20.3 ± 0.7 | 10.2 ± 1.1 | 14.0 ± 1.3 |
|
12.5 ± 0.8 | 13.7 ± 1.5 | 10.2 ± 0.6 | 12.5 ± 0.6 |
Antibacterial activity of root extracts from
Strain | MIC50 (mg/mL) | |
---|---|---|
Methanol extract | Acetone extract | |
|
10 | — |
|
5 | 5 |
|
5 | 10 |
|
10 | — |
|
10 | 10 |
|
5 | 10 |
|
5 | 5 |
|
10 | — |
|
10 | — |
|
10 | — |
Another study indicated that the polyyne, (
Antibacterial activity of
Strain | MIC50 ( |
---|---|
|
1 |
|
1 |
|
128 |
|
16 |
|
8 |
|
0.5 |
|
0.25 |
|
0.5 |
|
2 |
|
1 |
|
0.5 |
|
0.25 |
Antibacterial activity of
Antifungal activity of
Part/extract | Concentration (ppm) | Strain, % Inhibition | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
|
|||
Leaves | Essential oils | 100 | 85.7 ± 0.9 | 68.2 ± 0 | 74.5 ± 1.7 |
250 | 96.0 ± 0.8 | 77.9 ± 1.8 | 87.9 ± 0.4 | ||
Aqueous |
100 | 44.6 ± 1.7 | 60.5 ± 2.1 | 71.6 ± 0.7 | |
250 | 94.2 ± 0.3 | 68.9 ± 0.7 | 82.4 ± 1.9 | ||
| |||||
Flowers | Essential oils | 100 | 60.4 ± 0.9 | 89.2 ± 0.4 | 86.9 ± 0.5 |
250 | 89.4 ± 1.2 | 98.0 ± 0.3 | 94.9 ± 0.6 | ||
Aqueous |
100 | 33.1 ± 1.1 | 71.4 ± 0.7 | 57.3 ± 2.2 | |
250 | 66.1 ± 1.4 | 91.2 ± 0 | 90.0 ± 0.7 |
Another study by Ashafa and colleagues showed that acetone, methanol, and water extracts of the
Antifungal activity of
Strain | LC50 (mg/mL) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Acetone |
Methanol |
Water | |
|
0.14 | 0.06 | 0.07 |
|
10.91 | 6.58 | 0 |
|
0.05 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
In early studies, Dimo and colleagues used three rat models, normotensive Wistar rats (NTR), salt-loading hypertensive rats (SLHR), and spontaneous hypertensive rats (SHR) to investigate the hypotensive effect of the methanol crude extract of
A further study was performed to investigate the relaxing effect of a neutral extract of
Pretreatment with glibenclamide, an ATP-dependent K+ channel blocker, did not considerably affect the relaxant effect of the NBP on KCl-induced contraction, suggesting that the vasodilatory effect of
However, no specific compound for the above activity has been identified from
In addition to studying the wound healing effect of
Previous phytochemical studies showed that a group of flavonoids, acyclichalcones, are present in
Despite the claims listed in Table
Despite its use as an ingredient in food for human consumption, studies on systemic toxicity (e.g., acute, subacute, chronic and subchronic toxicities) of
The authors thank their laboratory members for constructive suggestions and the authors whose publications they cited for their contributions. The authors also thank Ms Miranda Loney of Academia Sinica for English editing of this paper. This work was supported by Grants 99-CDA-L11 and 101S0010056 from Academia Sinica, Taiwan. Arlene P. Bartolome is a recipient of MECO-TECO Sandwich Scholarship Program between Taiwan and the Philippines.