The present study was conducted in Delanta (Ethiopia) to examine the use of medicinal plants and investigate the impacts of the 1984/85 resettlement program on the local people’s knowledge on herbal medicine and its uses. The research was conducted with 72 informants in six study sites through semistructured interviews, group discussion, and market survey. In this study, 133 species belonging to 116 genera and 57 families were documented. These plants were mentioned for uses in the treatment of about 76 human and livestock ailments. The family Asteraceae was represented by the highest number with 14 species. Herbs accounted for 52.6% of the total species and leaves (32.6%) were the most frequently used parts. The analysis showed that the resettlement program has both positive and negative impacts on nature rehabilitation and local knowledge along with many human induced threats. Most of the plant knowledge is held by traditional healers and permanent residents. The people’s preference for some medicinal plants gave indications of continuity of the ethnomedicinal information among the inhabitants. The findings inform that efforts need to be directed to in situ conservation in two of the plant community types which could protect a good proportion (about 50%) of the medicinal plant species.
The concept of ethnobotanical knowledge has originated from local people, which has the potential to redress some of the shortcomings of contemporary Western knowledge [
The most serious dilemma facing Delanta was recurrent droughts [
Maintenance of the balance between conservation and human needs has always been a complex matter. Environmental resettlement programs have been positive with respect to alleviating the problems of recurrent food insecurity and enhance restoration of useful wild plants in the original places from where people were moved out. This, however, requires careful evaluation of people’s attitudes and perceptions of LK [
Delanta district is located at 530 km north of Addis Ababa in northwestern Wello. The major town, Wegeltena, is situated at 11°35′N latitude and 39°13′E longitude with an elevation of 2555 m (Figure
Map of Ethiopia showing the location of Delanta district and the study sites.
The study area receives bimodal rainfall. The major peak is important for crop production when the annual rainfall is received from mid-June to the beginning of September. The climadiagram in Figure
Climadiagram of the study area from the years 1999 to 2010 (data source: National Meteorological Service Agency of Ethiopia, Kombolicha Branch Directorate, 2011).
The district is divided into four agroecological zones. Farmers depend on both BELG and MEHER rainfall. Although these two production systems vary in source of income along with elevation, crop production is the largest source of income, followed by livestock and off-farm sources in the district [
Ethnobotanical information on the traditional use and management of TMPs was collected through participatory rural appraisal involving semistructured interviews and focus group discussions. All the discussions and interviews were conducted in Amharic language. The impact of the 1984/85 resettlement on vegetation rehabilitation was examined with guided field walk. Market survey was integral part of this research. Purposive sampling method was used and six representative sites (
Plant specimens were collected with local names and GPS data, pressed, dried, and brought to the National Herbarium (ETH), Addis Ababa University, for final determinations and confirmation using taxonomic keys in the flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea, comparison with authentic specimens, and expert assistance. The voucher specimens with labels were then deposited at the ETH. The vegetation of the study area was described using both the emic and etic categorization methods. The dominant or associated codominant species gave etic plant community types and the emic categories followed Martin’s system of emic vegetation classification [
The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics to evaluate the percentage and frequency of different aspects of TMPs. Preference ranking was conducted by using nine randomly selected key informants to rank five TMPs’ use against febrile illness and the degree of scarcity of other five TMP species. In paired comparison, nine key informants were asked to choose the top five TMPs used to treat stomachache based on their medicinal values. The number of pairs for each was calculated by applying the formula:
In total, 133 TMP species (including two vascular seedless plant taxa) distributed into 116 genera and 57 families were documented. Those species were collected from different habitats, notably wild vegetation that could be enclosed and unenclosed, farmlands, and homegardens. The growth form analysis of total TMPs indicated that the most widely used plant remedies are obtained from herbs (71 species, 53.4%), followed by shrubs (48 species, 36.1%) and trees (14 species, 10.5%). Of the total 57 families, Asteraceae and Lamiaceae were found to be represented by the highest number of species (14 and 12, resp.), followed by Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae with eight species each. Three families had four to five species, another five families had three species each, 16 families had two species each, and the remaining 29 families were represented by one species each (see Appendix
TMPs used against human and livestock ailments and detailed information on methods of preparation. Description of data: Uf.: used for (L: livestock; H: human; Hl.: both), Cp.: condition of preparation (F: fresh; D: dried; and Fd.: fresh & dried), Ra.: route of administration (D: dermal, Op.: optical, N: nasal, O: oral, A: anal, and V: vaginal), and Pu.: plant parts used (R: root, S: stem, Sb.: stem bark, Rh.: rhizome, L: leaf, F: fruit, Fl.: flower, Se.: seed, B: bulbs, La.: latex, W: whole parts, and Ag.: abovegroufnd part).
Scientific name | Pu. | Uf. | Disease treated | Ra. | Cp. | Method of preparation and application of TMPs |
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L | H | Conjunctivitis | Op. | F | Pounded and squeezed leaf juice is filtered with cotton cloth and dropped into the eye |
L | H | Impetigo ( |
D | F | Crushed leaf is bandaged on the wound | |
R | H | Hemorrhage at birth | O | F | Pounded and squeezed leaf is filtered with water to be drunk in a half size of water cup | |
R | Hl. | Bleeding of any part | D | F | It is crushed and then dressed on the bleeding part of livestock and human | |
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L | H | Emergency (trauma) | D | F | Crushed leaf juice is creamed on head and face or any parts that felt sickness |
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L | H | Tonsillitis | O | F | Pounded and squeezed leaf juice is drunk with a coffee glass |
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B | L | Leech infestation | N | Fd. | It is crushed and mixed with water and poured into the nose in both openings |
B | H | Leech infestation | O | Fd. | It is crushed and mixed with water and then poured orally | |
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B | H | Influenza virus | N | F | The bulb is peeled and the aroma sniffed |
B | H | Dry cough | O | Fd. | The bulb is chopped and mixed with ground seed of | |
B | H | Evil eye | D/N | F | Its bulb with the roots of | |
B | H | Heartburn ( |
O | F | Chopped bulb is boiled in water and then the decoction is drunk in a tea glass | |
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Fl. | H | Idiopathy ( |
D | F | It is cooked with chopped root of |
L | Evil spirit at birth | N | D | It is placed on burning dung with | ||
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La. | Hl. | Wound (irritation) | D | F | It is pasted the latex on the wounded part of livestock and human |
R | L | Rh factor/disease | O | D | It is pounded with the root of | |
R | H | Rh factor/disease | O | D | It is powdered with | |
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L | H | Common cold | N | F | The aroma of leaf is inhaled by inserting half part of it into nose |
S | H | Trachoma | Op. | F | The infected outer part of the eye is heated with roasted portion of stem | |
W | H | Evil eye | O/D | Fd. | It is kept in pocket as tooth brush; the powder is tied with others like |
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Rh. | H | Birth control | O | D | Chopped and pounded rhizome is mixed with root of |
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Ag. | Hl. | Swelling ( |
D | F | It is crushed and homogenized in water for washing the swelling by saying “Betin” |
R | Hl. | Rh factor/disease | O | D | It is pounded with the root of other species like |
|
Ag. | H | Circumcision | D | F | The young aboveground part is crushed and the injury is applied as cream with yolk of egg | |
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L | H | Ascariasis | O | F | It is boiled in water with seed of |
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Se. | L | Bloating | O | D | It is ground and homogenized in residue of traditional ale with |
Se. | H | Abortion of unborn child ( |
O | D | It is ground and homogenized in a cup of water and then drunk by pregnant woman | |
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F | H | Idiopathy | D | F | Its flowers are cooked with crushed root of |
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L | H | Tinea favus ( |
D | D | Crushed and powdered leaf is mixed with butter and then the infected head part is creamed |
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La. | H | Hemorrhoids/tumor (swollen anal veins) | A | F | Its latex is used alone or mixed with |
La. | H | Piercing by sharper | D | F | The latex is applied as cream on part pierced by sharpen material with the help of needle | |
L | H | Boils (furuncle) | D | D | Crushed and powdered leaf is applied as cream with latex of | |
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L | L | Body lice ( |
D | F | Its leaf is crushed and stirred in water to wash cattle or calves until removal of lice |
Se. | H | Giardiasis and amoebiasis | O | D | The ground seed is mixed with honey and eaten with three-liter rubber lid size in the morning until recovery, before taking other diets | |
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R/Sb. | H | Evil spirit (sickness) | N | D | The root or stem bark is chopped and placed on the fire and the smoke is inhaled |
R/Sb. | H | Epidemic | N | D | The same methods are used to treat evil spirit and hang the remainder on the roof | |
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F | H | Appetite loss | O | F | The pod is chopped and mixed with freshly |
F | H | Malaria (revival) | O | F | The same method is used to treat loss of appetite, prior to taking other diets in the morning | |
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R | H | Febrile illness | O/D | Fd. | It is pounded and squeezed by adding water and is taken by a cup of tea and the remnant is creamed |
R | L | Febrile illness | O/D | Fd. | It is pounded by adding water and is decanted by a cup of water and the remnant is pasted | |
R | L | Dysentery ( |
D | D | The room of sheep or goats is fumigated and the remnants are placed there against “Mentie” | |
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L | Hl. | Snake bite | O | F | The liquid is chewed and absorbed soon and for animals its crushed leaf is decanted |
L | H | Rh factor/disease | O | F | It is crushed and soaked in water for one day and drunk in one cup of coffee prior to 9th month of pregnancy period | |
R | H | Evil eye | D/N | Fd. | It is the same as used in |
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L | H | Sexual impotency in men | O | Fd. | It is crushed and pounded with the whole parts of |
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L | H | Diuretic | O | F | It is boiled in the pot with water at night and the decoction is drunk in the morning |
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R | H | Evil eye | D/N | D | It is the same as used in |
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Ag. | L | Coccoides (chicken lice) | D/N | D | Aboveground parts are chopped and the room of chickens is fumigated and the chickens themselves sniffed smokes nasally |
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W | H | Fire accident | D | D | The whole parts are crushed and powdered and then the burnt part is creamed with butter |
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F | H | Dandruff | D | F | The acetic fruit is pierced and squeezed and the head is creamed with yolk of egg |
F | H | Ringworm ( |
D | F | It is pierced and squeezed; then the affected parts are creamed alone specially faces | |
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L | H | Impetigo ( |
D | F | The leaf is crushed and squeezed and the affected part is creamed with powder of |
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R | H | Evil eye | D/N | D | It is the same as used in |
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L | L | Leech infestation | N | F | The crushed leaf is soaked in water and decanted into cattle through their nose |
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S | H | Toothache | D | F | Affected tooth is heated by chopped and roasted stem without contact with other parts |
R | H | Emergency ( |
O | Fd. | It is crushed and pounded with the root of | |
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L | H | Malaria | O | F | Fresh leaf is boiled in water and the decoction is drunk in a cup of tea |
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R | L | Emaciation | O | Fd. | Its root is crushed together with root of |
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Se. | H | Stomachache ( |
O | D | The raw seed is eaten with small amount of ground salt by the patient |
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Sb. | H | Ascariasis | O | F | It is chopped and boiled in water with seed of |
R | H | Evil spirit (Sickness) | N | D | It is chopped and placed on the fire with | |
R | H | Evil eye | D | D | It is the same as used in | |
L | L | Poison insects on Sorghum ( |
O | F | It is crushed alone or with root of | |
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R | H | Removal of retained placenta ( |
O | F | Freshly washed root is chewed and absorbed by woman |
L | Hl. | Eye injury (inserted materials or hit) | Op. | F | It is crushed and squeezed with the leaf of | |
R | H | Birth control | O | F | It is chewed and absorbed with ripe fruit of | |
R | H | Gonorrhea ( |
O | D | In powder form, one teaspoon is infused into doro wot and then eaten by Injera | |
R | Hl. | Rabies virus | O | D | Powdered root is mixed with cheese in one cup of tea and then drunk | |
R | H | Jaundice ( |
O | D | Powdered root is mixed with cheese in one tea glass and then drunk | |
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F | H | Gastritis ( |
O | F | Peeled fruit is boiled at night and eaten in the morning before taking other diets |
L | H | Dandruff ( |
D | F | The head is rubbed and creamed alone or with the leaf of |
|
F | H | Stomachache ( |
O | F | Peeled and boiled fruit is eaten before taking other diets soon by mother at birth | |
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L | L | Leech infestation | N | F | Crushed leaf is mixed with small amount of water is poured to the cattle via their nose |
R | H | Tapeworm ( |
O | Fd. | Crushed and pounded root is eaten with ale/beer of | |
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W | H | Febrile illness ( |
D | F | The whole parts are crushed and infused in small amount of water and then the parts that felt illness are washed except chest |
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R | L | Poison insects on |
O | F | It is the same method of preparation and ingredients as used in |
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Se. | H | Toothache | D | D | Seeds mixed to butter are roasted on plate and inhaled the vapor air through opening their mouth |
L | H | Ringworm, dandruff | D | F | The fresh leaf is rubbed and applied as cream on the head like |
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L | H | Febrile illness | O/N | F | It is boiled in water and its decoction is drunk and then the vapor air is inhaled |
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S & L | Hl. | Bone fracture | D | Fd. | Powdered leaf is glued with its cracked stem on the broken bone with sap of |
R | H | Evil eye | D/N | D | It is crushed and powdered and tied on the neck and roots are inhaled with others same as |
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W | H | Scabies, itching, and injury of skin | D | Fd. | The whole parts are roasted with |
W | H | Wound ( |
D | Fd. | It is crushed and pounded with leaf of | |
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R & S | H | Febrile illness | O/D | Fd. | It is pounded and squeezed and soaked in water and is drunk by a cup of tea and all parts are creamed |
R & S | L | Sunstroke ( |
O/D | Fd. | It is pounded and soaked in water by a cup of water and is decanted and the livestock is creamed | |
R & S | L | Struck cattle | O/N | Fd. | It is pounded and infused in one cup of water and decanted, and fumigated the smoke for cattle | |
R & S | H | Epidemic; evil eye | N | D | It is crushed and placed on the hot fire and inhaled by all householders | |
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L | L | Leech infestation | N | F | Crushed leaf is soaked in water and the concoction decanted into the nose of cattle |
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R & Sb. | H | Gastritis, cough | O | D | In powder form, two teaspoons infusions into one cup of water are taken before meals |
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R | L | Rh factor/disease | O | D | It is the same ingredient and preparation method of |
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L | H | Emergency illness | N | F | The leaf is roasted with the seed of |
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L | H | Headache | N | F | It is rubbed and its aroma inhaled |
L | H | Common cold | N | F | It is rubbed and its aroma inhaled without calling its name “Nech-Bahirzaf” | |
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S | L | Cough ( |
N | D | The stem is placed on burning dung and the smoke sniffed to treat Donkey’s cough |
La. | H | Ascariasis | O | F | 3–5 drops of its latex are homogenized in water with the powder of | |
Fl. | H | Leprosy ( |
D | Fd. | Pounded flower is infused in honey and applied as cream on wound | |
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W | H | Ascariasis | O | D | In powder form, two teaspoons are roasted with equal size of roasted |
La. | H | Skin infection ( |
D | F | The latexes are applied as cream on the affected parts only | |
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La. | H | Impetigo ( |
D | F | The wound is bled first and then its latex with latex of |
La. | H | Boils ( |
D | F | Its latex is applied as cream with latex of | |
La. | H | Skin cancer (tumor) | D | F | It is the same method of preparation as used in |
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La. | L | Donkey’s wart | D | F | The milky latex is pasted alone or with the latex of |
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L | H | Stomachache ( |
O | F | The leaf is chewed and absorbed during feeling pain |
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R | L | Sterile cow/be fertile | O | D | Roots are dug at seven distinct places; pounded root is eaten with Injera |
R | H | Intestine pain | O | D | Two teaspoonful powders was infused in to glass of water (one cup of tea amount) and drunk | |
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La. | H | Impetigo ( |
D | F | The wound is bled first and then its latex is applied as cream alone until recovery |
La. | H | Hemorrhoids | D | F | It is the same method and ingredient used in |
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L | H | Febrile illness | Op. | F | It is boiled with the leaf of |
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L | H | Diuretic ( |
O | D | It is boiled and then the decoction is drunk by adding sugar like tea |
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Se. | H | Malaria | O | D | Ground seed is soaked in water with small amount of salt and drunk by a cup of tea |
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Sb. | L | Leech infestation | N | F | Chopped and pounded stem bark is mixed with water and poured into the nose of cattle |
L | L | Removal of placenta | O | F | It is crushed and pounded with the root of | |
L | H | Eye injury | Op. | F | It is squeezed alone or with | |
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Se. | H | Dry cough | O | D | It is pounded with seed of |
Se. | L | Swelling bull neck | D | D | The seed is chewed and the chewed seed is pitted on the wounded neck of bull | |
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Sb. | H | Malaria | O | D | It is chopped and powdered with the root of |
Se. | H | Tapeworm | O | D | The seed is pounded by pestle and mortar and mixed in ale (before filtration) and then a small amount is eaten in a separate house with one boy; if the risk comes, the “Shiro” stew is taken | |
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R | H | Impotency in men | O | Fd. | It is the same method and ingredient used in |
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R | H | Stomachache | O | F | The cleaned root is chewed and the liquid absorbed |
L | Hl. | Leech infestation | O/N | F | Pounded leaf is soaked in water and drunk orally for human and decanted nasally for cattle | |
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Tu. | H | Idiopathy ( |
D | F | It is the same method as used in |
Tu. | H | Fire accident | D | Fd. | Chopped and pounded tubular root is pasted on the injured body | |
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L | L | Cataract ( |
Op. | F | The young leaf is chewed with the leaf of |
L | L | Leech infestation | N | F | It is the same as |
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R | L | Emaciation | O | Fd. | It is the same method of preparation and ingredient of |
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Sh. | H | Hemorrhage at birth | V | F | It is crushed with the leaf of |
L | Hl. | Eye injury | Op. | F | It is the same method of preparation and ingredient of |
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L | H | Trachoma ( |
Op. | F | Its young leaf and leaf of | |
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L | L | Febrile illness | O | F | Crushed and pounded leaf is stirred in water and then decanted for all pack animals |
L | L | Rh factor/disease | O | F | Crushed and pounded leaf is stirred in water and then decanted for cow | |
L | L | Leech infestation | N | F | Crushed and pounded leaf is stirred in water and then decanted for cattle | |
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L | L | Body lice | D | F | Its leaf is crushed and pounded and then immersed in water to wash the body of cattle |
L | L | Dysentery | O | F | It is crushed with | |
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S | L | Swelling bull neck | D | F | Once bled with blade, chopped and peeled stem twig is tied on injured neck of bull |
Ag. | H | Scabies ( |
D | Fd. | It is the same method and ingredient as |
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F | L | Swelling bull neck | D | D | The fruit is roasted, used as container of butter on flame, and the injured neck of bull is rubbed |
L | H | Ringworm | D | F | It is crushed and applied as cream on infected head and other skin parts until recovery | |
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L | H | Stomachache | O | F | The leaf is chewed and the liquid absorbed |
L | Hl. | Leech infestation | O/N | F | It is the same as | |
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R | H | Stomachache | O | F | The root is chewed and the liquid absorbed |
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L | L | Bloating | O | F | Crushed and pounded leaf is stirred in water and then decanted for cattle |
L | L | Struck cattle | O | F | Crushed and pounded leaf is stirred in water and then decanted for cattle | |
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Se. | L | Bloating ( |
O | D | It is the same method and ingredient of |
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W | L | Emaciation | O | Fd. | It is the same method of preparation and ingredient of |
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L | H | Ringworm ( |
D | F | Crushed and pounded leaf is applied as cream with the milk of pregnant cow on the injured part |
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R & S | H | Evil eye | O/D | D | It is the same method and ingredient of |
La. | H | Hemorrhoids/tumor | D | F | It is the same method and ingredient used in |
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R | H | Dandruff | D | F | Its root is crushed in water until formation of bubble and then the head is washed |
Sb. | Hl. | Wound (any type) | D | F | Chopped and pounded stem bark is pasted with powdered | |
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L | L | Leech infestation | N | F | It is pounded and soaked in water and then the concoction decanted in nose of cattle |
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W | H | Psychiatric disorder | D | F | The whole parts are pounded and immersed in pot water for three days and body is washed |
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Sb. | L | Rh factor/disease | O | Fd. | It is the same ingredient and preparation method of |
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F | H | Ascariasis | O | F | Ripe fruit is eaten and traditional beer/ale is drunk in the morning before any meals |
L | H | Tapeworm | O | F | The leaf is pounded and squeezed by adding water and then drinking half a cup of water | |
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L | H | Itching ( |
D | D | The leaf is crushed and powdered with the leaf of |
Ag. | H | Epidemic | N | D | The crushed aboveground parts are inhaled on hot fire to reduce transmission of disease | |
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L | L | Leech infestation | N | F | The leaf is pounded and soaked in water and then the concoction is decanted into nose of cattle |
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Se. | H | Stomachache ( |
O | D | The ground seed is boiled with oil and drunk by tea glass |
Se. | H | Dry cough | O | D | It is the same method and ingredient of |
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L | H | Headache; febrile | O/D | F | One cup of squeezed leaf is drunk with coffee orally and the remainder is applied as cream to injured parts |
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S | H | Toothache | D | F | It is similar method to that used in |
S | H | Human’s wart | D | F | The bleeding wart is heated with chopped and roasted stem with the sap of |
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W | H | Fire accident | D | D | Crushed and roasted parts are powdered and then are applied as cream with butter on injured parts |
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L | L | Emaciation | O | Fd. | It is the same method of preparation and ingredient of |
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L | H | Diarrhea | O | F | One-half of a cup of coffee of squeezed leaf is drunk, specially for babies |
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L | H | Vomiting, nausea, & diarrhea | O | F | The leaf is crushed and squeezed and mixed to root of |
L | L | Dysentery | O | F | It is crushed and pounded with leaf of | |
Ag. | H | Evil spirit | N | Fd. | The aboveground parts are fumigated on hot fire, specially for the new birth time | |
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L | H | Ascariasis, diarrhea | O | F | The leaf is pounded and squeezed and then drunk in a cup of tea in the morning before any diet |
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R & L | Hl | Rabies virus | O | D | It is chopped and pounded with the root of |
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L | H | Vomiting & diarrhea | O | F | Crushed and squeezed leaf is mixed in boiled cup of coffee and then the decoction is drunk |
L | H | Emergency ( |
O/D | F | It is squeezed and mixed in boiled cup of coffee and then the decoction is drunk and the face is creamed | |
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R | H | Against snake bite | O | F | It is chewed and absorbed before any diet during the starting new year of Ethiopia and did not take any sour taste fruits from the time on wards |
R | H | Evil spirit ( |
O | Fd. | The cleaned root is chewed and absorbed | |
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L | Hl. | Cataract ( |
Op. | F | Leaf is pounded and squeezed by using clean cloth and added to injured or infected eye |
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W | H | Evil spirit ( |
D | Fd. | The powder is tied on the neck and held in the pocket wherever they moved |
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W | H | Evil spirit ( |
D | Fd. | It is similar methods as those used in |
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L | H | Wound (infection) | D | F | Pounded leaf is pasted on wounded part |
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L | H | Tonsillitis | O/D | Fd. | Pounded and squeezed leaf is taken in a half index finger size of cup and is applied as cream with malt on the center of head by saying “sikel, sikel” |
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|
L | L | Leech infestation | N | F | The leaf is pounded and stirred in water that contained salt and then the concoction is decanted |
|
||||||
|
L | H | Itching ( |
D | D | It is the same method and ingredient of |
|
||||||
|
R | L | Weakling bull ( |
O | D | It is chopped and pounded with the root of |
|
||||||
|
Sh. | H | Eczema ( |
D | Fd. | It is roasted and powdered with the leaf of |
|
||||||
|
R | H | Evil eye | N | D | Crushed and powdered root is fumigated and the aroma of the smoke at night is smelt |
|
||||||
|
R | H | Itching ( |
D | Fd. | It is crushed and roasted and then powdered root is applied as cream with butter on wound |
|
||||||
|
R | H | Stomachache ( |
O | F | The cleaned root is chewed and absorbed alone or with the root of |
|
||||||
|
L | H | Eye pain | Op. | F | It is the same as |
S | H | Ringworm ( |
D | F | The stem is roasted on hot fire and the bubbles arisen from stem are applied as cream on wound | |
S | H | Human’s wart | D | F | It is the same as |
|
|
||||||
|
F | H | Stomachache ( |
O | Fd. | The fruit/seed is eaten alone or with the rhizome of |
F | H | Evil eye ( |
D | Fd. | The fruit is chewed and held with the bulb of |
|
|
||||||
|
L | L | Dysentery | O | F | It is the same method and ingredient of |
|
||||||
|
F | H | Stomachache ( |
O | Fd. | The ripe fruit/seed is eaten alone for both prevention and treatment of disease |
|
||||||
|
Se. | H | Rh factor/disease | O | D | It is the same method and ingredient used in |
|
||||||
|
R | H | Evil eye | O/D | D | It is the same method and ingredients used in |
|
||||||
|
R | H | Tapeworm | O | Fd. | Crushed and pounded root in half index finger size is drunk by tea glass, and if the risk comes, powder of |
|
||||||
|
L | L | Emaciation | O | F | It is the same method of preparation and ingredient of |
|
||||||
|
F | H | Birth control | O | F | It is the same method of preparation and ingredient used in |
F | H | Itching ( |
D | F | The fruit is pounded with pestle and mortar and then applied as cream with butter on wound | |
|
||||||
|
F & Se. | L | Cough ( |
N | F | Its fruit is pierced and its fluid and seed are collected in a cup to be decanted nasally |
F & Se. | H | Rabies virus | O | F | Its fluid is collected with squeezed leaf of | |
F | L | Evil eye | O | F | Roasted and pierced ripe fruit can be eaten with straw or hay fodders | |
|
||||||
|
L | Hl. | Bleeding (epistaxis) | D | F | Its leaf is crushed and tied to bleeding nose alone or with the leaf of |
R | H | Stomachache | O | F | It is the same method and ingredient used in |
|
|
||||||
|
L | H | Gastritis | O | F | The washed or cleaned raw leaf before any meals is chewed |
|
||||||
|
R | H | Against snake bite | O | F | It is the same as |
|
||||||
|
W | L | Poisoned insects | O | Fd. | It is the same method and ingredients used in |
|
||||||
|
F | H | Dry cough | O | D | It is the same method and ingredients used in |
L | H | Hypertension | O | Fd. | The crushed or the normal leaf is boiled and then taken like a tea with a tea glass | |
|
||||||
|
W | H | Impotency (in men) | O | Fd. | It is the same method and ingredient used in |
|
||||||
|
L | H | Night blindness | D/N | F | The leaf is boiled in hot water and its aroma fumigated three times by opening the lid |
Rh. | H | Abortion | V | F | It is peeled with blade; three half little finger size rhizomes are inserted in the vagina | |
L | H | Eye injury | Op | F | Pounded and squeezed leaf is dropped on the injured eye by insertion of bad materials | |
|
||||||
|
R | H | Stomachache/nausea | O | F | The liquid is chewed and sucked and the residue is spitted |
R | L | Weakling bull | O | D | It is the same method and ingredient used in |
|
|
||||||
|
R | L | Struck cattle ( |
O | Fd. | One water cup of pounded root in the water is decanted alone or with |
R | L | Febrile illness | O | Fd. | Crushed and pounded root is soaked in water and poured orally for all livestock | |
R | H | Evil eye | O/N | D | It is the same method and ingredient used in |
|
R | H | Psychiatric disorder | O | Fd. | It is crushed alone or with | |
|
||||||
|
L | H | Wound, bleeding | D | F | The leaf is crushed and pounded and then tied on the injured part |
|
||||||
|
R | H | Febrile illness | D/N | Fd. | Crushed and pounded leaf is stirred in water until bubbles are formed and then all parts are creamed except chest and the dried root is fumigated on hot fire and sniffed |
|
||||||
|
Se. | H | Boils | D | D | It is ground and soaked in water and pasted on wound and then heated by dung of jackass |
Se. | H | Ascariasis | O | D | It is the same method and ingredient used in either |
|
|
||||||
|
R | H | Evil eye/spirit | D/N | D | It is the same method and ingredient used in |
|
||||||
|
L | H | Jaundice | O | F | The leaf is pounded and squeezed and then drunk in half a cup of tea |
R | Hl. | Rabies virus | O | D | It is the same method and ingredient used in |
|
Ag. | H | Febrile illness | N | F | It is the same method and ingredient used in |
|
|
||||||
|
Rh. | H | Stomachache | O | Fd. | It is the same method and ingredient used in |
For authorities to scientific names of each species, see Appendix
Proportion of treatment of human, livestock, and both human and livestock ailments.
With regard to plant parts, leaves were the most frequently used parts (32.6%) used to treat various ailments, followed by roots (21.7%), and further details are given in Table
Frequency of plant parts used and route of administration of remedy from TMPs.
Plants parts | Frequency | Percentage | Route of administration | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Leaf only | 75 | 32.6 | Oral | 101 | 43.9 |
Root only | 50 | 21.7 | Dermal | 66 | 28.7 |
Fruit only | 16 | 6.9 | Nasal | 26 | 11.3 |
Seed only | 15 | 6.5 | Optical | 11 | 4.8 |
Whole plant | 15 | 6.5 | Oral and dermal | 10 | 4.3 |
Latex only | 12 | 5.2 | Dermal and nasal | 8 | 3.5 |
Stem only | 8 | 3.5 | Oral and nasal | 5 | 2.2 |
Aboveground parts | 7 | 3.0 | Vaginal | 2 | 0.9 |
Bulb | 6 | 2.6 | Anal | 1 | 0.4 |
Root and stem | 5 | 2.2 | Total |
|
|
Stem bark only | 5 | 2.2 | |||
Rhizome only | 3 | 1.3 | |||
Root and stem bark | 3 | 1.3 | |||
Flower only | 2 | 0.9 | |||
Fruit and seed | 2 | 0.9 | |||
Shoot only | 2 | 0.9 | |||
Tuber | 2 | 0.9 | |||
Leaf and stem | 1 | 0.4 | |||
Root and leaf | 1 | 0.4 | |||
Total |
|
|
After estimating the doses, different routes of administration were used. Oral route (43.9%) was being the most common route of administration, followed by dermal route (28.7%) as shown in Table
In Delanta, no side effects were reported by informants except some species like
Informant consensus on commonly known TMP species.
Scientific name | Total informants’ agreement | Percentage | Rank |
---|---|---|---|
|
66 | 91.7 | 1st |
|
61 | 84.7 | 2nd |
|
56 | 77.8 | 3rd |
|
42 | 58.3 | 4th |
|
37 | 51.4 | 5th |
|
35 | 48.6 | 6th |
|
30 | 41.7 | 7th |
|
25 | 34.7 | 8th |
|
21 | 29.2 | 9th |
|
20 | 27.8 | 10th |
Febrile illness was the third common disease of both human and livestock in the district health office. Preference ranking of five TMPs was reported as effective for treating febrile illness. Table
Preference ranking of TMPs against febrile illness.
Plant species that treat febrile illness | Key informants (coded K1 to K9) with the ranks they gave | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
K1 | K2 | K3 | K4 | K5 | K6 | K7 | K8 | K9 | Total | Rank | |
|
4 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 28 | 3rd |
|
5 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 27 | 4th |
|
3 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 35 | 1st |
|
1 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 18 | 5th |
|
2 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 30 | 2nd |
Paired comparison was made among five TMPs that were identified by the informants to be used in treating stomachache (Table
Results of paired comparison for five TMPs used for treating stomachache.
Plant species that treat stomachache | Key informants (Coded K1 to K9) with the ranks they gave | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
K1 | K2 | K3 | K4 | K5 | K6 | K7 | K8 | K9 | Score | Rank | |
|
0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 4th |
|
2 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 15 | 3rd |
|
4 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 28 | 1st |
|
1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 9 | 5th |
|
3 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 3 | 27 | 2nd |
Informant consensus factor for the given disease category.
Category | N. spp. | Nur. | ICF |
---|---|---|---|
Respiratory, febrile illness, and throat infection (common cold, influenza, dry cough, tonsillitis, and sunstroke) | 19 | 203 | 0.91 |
|
|||
Internal parasites and gastrointestinal disorder (rabies virus, jaundice, stomachache, bloating, vomiting and nausea, appetite loss, malaria, diarrhea and dysentery, tapeworm, ascariasis, giardiasis, and amoebiasis, leech infestation, and heartburn) | 46 | 248 | 0.82 |
|
|||
Dermatological disorders/infections (swelling, wound, dandruff, ring worm, leprosy, eczema, itching, wart, boils, impetigo, and idiopathy) | 34 | 178 | 0.81 |
|
|||
Psychiatric disorder and birth problems (headache, toothache, blood pressure, abortion, Rh factor, retained placenta, hemorrhage at birth, and infertility) | 19 | 68 | 0.73 |
|
|||
Emaciation and weakling for livestock and epidemic for humans | 9 | 30 | 0.72 |
|
|||
Evil eye, evil spirit, and emergency (trauma) | 24 | 59 | 0.60 |
|
|||
External injury and poisoning parasites (eye problems, cataract, bone fracture, circumcision, bleeding, snake bite, struck, fire accident, and body lice) | 25 | 48 | 0.49 |
|
|||
Genitourinary problems (gonorrhea and diuretic and sexual impotency) | 5 | 8 | 0.43 |
Proportion of other uses of the ethnomedicinal plant species.
Use diversity analysis shows that, among the six TMPs,
Results of direct matrix ranking of multipurpose TMPs.
Main uses |
|
|
|
|
|
|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Firewood | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
Medicine | 5 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 3 | 3 |
Construction | 4 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 1 |
Fodder | 4 | 5 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 3 |
Edible fruit | 5 | 0 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
Total | 23 | 20 | 21 | 19 | 18 | 17 |
Rank | 1st | 3rd | 2nd | 4th | 5th | 6th |
Results of direct matrix ranking of factors threatening to TMPs.
Threats | Key informants (coded K1 to K9) with the total scores and rank | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
K1 | K2 | K3 | K4 | K5 | K6 | K7 | K8 | K9 | Total | Rank | |
Agricultural expansion | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 6 | 6 | 49 | 1st |
Mining of opals | 4 | 3 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 33 | 5th |
Overgrazing | 4 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 38 | 4th |
Farm tools and construction | 6 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 6 | 41 | 3rd |
Drought | 3 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 5 | 31 | 6th |
Firewood and charcoal | 5 | 5 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 47 | 2nd |
Further analysis showed that
Priority ranking values (based on their degree of scarcity in the wild) for five selected TMPs.
Threatened medicinal plant species | Key informants (coded K1 to K6) with the total scores and rank | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
K1 | K2 | K3 | K4 | K5 | K6 | K7 | K8 | K9 | Total | Rank | |
|
4 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 5 | 2 | 31 | 2nd |
|
2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 23 | 4th |
|
3 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 1 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 28 | 3rd |
|
1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 21 | 5th |
|
5 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 32 | 1st |
Trends of ethnomedicinal plant species in homegarden and wild vegetation.
LK of people on landscapes and soil types.
Landscape classification | Soil classification | ||
---|---|---|---|
Emic classification | Etic classification | Emic classification | Etic classification |
WOTAGEBA | Undulated land | KEYATIE | Red soil |
TERRAR | Mountain | WALKA | Black soil |
MEDA/REGATA | Plain | BUNAMA | Dark brown |
GODGUADAMESK | Valley | ASE | Mixed soil |
GEFET/GEDEL | Outcrop land | NECHATE | Silt/ashy soil |
TEDAFAT/KONTER | Hilly/steep slope | KOSIE | Dung wastes |
Plant community types and characteristic plant species.
Number | Plant community type and elevation | Characteristic species | Taxa known to be endemic or near endemic to Ethiopia | Spp. |
---|---|---|---|---|
I |
|
|
|
35 |
|
||||
II | Riverine vegetation (altitude varies); WENZ DAR |
|
|
5 |
|
||||
III |
|
|
|
32 |
|
||||
IV | Farmland and monastery plant community type (altitude varies); YERSHAGOT and GEDAM |
|
|
20 |
|
||||
V | Homegarden plant community type (altitude varies); YEGUARO ATIKLT |
|
|
24 |
|
||||
VI |
|
|
|
9 |
|
||||
VII |
|
|
|
4 |
|
||||
VIII |
|
|
|
4 |
|
||||
Total |
|
+Taxa which are endemic to Ethiopia while ++near endemic taxa are those shared with Eritrea.
The present study noted that well-organized emic classification of local vegetation was not shown in some ecological settings (largely DEGA zones) where natural vegetation has been almost completely changed into agricultural lands. Regarding habitat, most of the TMPs are distributed in different habitats though their availability varies from place to place among species. The majority were harvested from the wild (71 species), followed by homegarden (24 species), and cultivated in farmlands (Figure
Proportion of habitat diversity of TMPs.
The LK of the three age groups was compared with respect to the names and the respective uses of TMPs. The sample sizes of each age group were 14, 28, and 30 persons from 20 to 88 with 22 years’ gap. The results show that the age groups within the ranges of 66–88 years reported the highest proportion of TMP names and uses. The total value is more than 100% because sometimes same plant species were mentioned by all groups (Figure
Variations of LK in TMPs among the three age groups of informants.
The majority of traditional healers (84.4%) kept the knowledge with them and selected family members for the sake of confidentiality while others (16.6%) transferred their LK to other persons (Table
Mode of TMP knowledge transfer from traditional healers to others.
Means of knowledge transfer | Number of traditional healers | % |
---|---|---|
Selected family members (verbal and/or observation) | ||
Males only | 9 | 50.0 |
For both females and males | 6 | 33.4 |
Other members of societies (verbal and/or observation) | ||
Best relatives/peers | 2 | 11.1 |
Anybody who seeks to learn the knowledge of healers | 1 | 5.5 |
Total |
|
|
Variation of LK on some TMP names.
Number | Scientific name |
Different local names among three groups of informants | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Key informants | Permanent residents | Returnees | ||
1 |
|
Gimdo | Yetota-Kita | — |
2 |
|
Yeset-kest | Kestencha | Betin |
3 |
|
Dendero | Yemidir Koshele | Yedega Koshele |
4 |
|
Yesetaf | Koshele | — |
5 |
|
Key-telenji | Key-telenji | — |
6 |
|
Sinin | Sinign | — |
7 |
|
Dechmerch | Yesatmedanit | — |
8 |
|
Bisana | Bisana/Mekenisa | Mekenisa |
9 |
|
Kuno | Kugno | — |
10 |
|
Yemogn-fikir | Hulu-zemede | Chigogot |
11 |
|
Milas-golgul | Aserkush | Hareg |
12 |
|
Astenagr | Banjie | — |
13 |
|
Yesheftmedanit | Yesheftmedanit | — |
14 |
|
— | — | — |
15 |
|
Sete-qulqual | Yeberha-qulqual | Qulqual |
16 |
|
Simiza/Sensel | Sensel | Sensel |
17 |
|
Endehulla | Endehulla/Fitfita | — |
18 |
|
Keskessie | Alashume | Alashume |
19 |
|
Demastefi | Yewushamilas | Yewushamilas |
20 |
|
Kessie | Ayib-kessie | — |
21 |
|
Kechemo | Kerchemo | — |
22 |
|
Yabesh-Tinbaho | Tinbaho/Atiya | Tinbaho |
23 |
|
— | Yesatmedanit | — |
24 |
|
— | Yewerezamedanit | — |
25 |
|
Etse-libona | Yebabmedanit/Kibegolgu | — |
26 |
|
— | — | — |
27 |
|
Gullo | Agullo | Agullo |
28 |
|
Mekmeko | Embari-kolla | Embari-kolla |
29 |
|
Yedi | Embuay | Embuay |
30 |
|
Tikur-awut | Tikur-awut | Awut |
31 |
|
Etse-eyesus | Yeayit-hareg | Hareg |
32 |
|
Etse-anbessa | Ems-anketkit | — |
33 |
|
Etse-debtera | Ketetina | Ketetina |
34 |
|
— | Yemichmedanit | — |
35 |
|
Etse-sabek | Aregresa | Hareg |
Of 36 returnees including some key informants, only two persons were born in the destination of resettlement areas and the rest were primarily born in the original area and then left from their original area during the 1984/85 famine. However, after staying away at different times, they came back to their original location (Delanta district). The sample sizes of the three groups of informants were 18 key informants, 25 permanent residents, and 29 returnees. The results showed that key informants are more knowledgeable about TMP species (92.6%), followed by permanent residents (81.5%). However, concerning returnees, the least results were recorded in all the three aspects (Figure
Variations of LK of TMPs among three groups of informants.
The findings on the impacts of resettlement depict that the 1984/85 resettlement had both positive and negative results in the area of ethnobotanical knowledge and social and cultural activities. From negative perspective, for instance, majority of the returnees had lost specified local names and detailed preparation of TMPs, and youngsters were not willing to respect the LK and the associated taboos. For the positive perspectives, on the other hand, the former farmlands were converted into noncultivated vegetation. Such promoting ecological rehabilitation in turn provided restoration of wild useful plants and reduced human pressure on plant resources.
Relatively high number of TMP species is encouraging and a good indication that the area has reasonable number of useful plant species. This is partly the result of the action to move out drought-affected people from the area and the fact that the permanent residents went on using and protecting the plants. The results agree very well with the findings in the Cheffa plain of southern Wello where 83 TMPs species were recorded [
The people of Delanta rely largely on herbs, which are replacing the forest resources and are relatively common in the areas where extensive degradation has taken place. This finding agrees with findings of many authors [
Among several preparation methods, the most frequent use of chopping, crushing, and pounding could be because of ease of use of local tools. Similar finding was reported by Tamene et al. [
In the community, some of the TMP species were more popular and recognized as more effective and popular remedies than others. From both rankings and comparisons, it could be understood that the most favored species are usually the most effective ones for being used against a particular ailment. Thus, the preferences of some TMPs more than others prove the reliability and continuity of the ethnomedicinal information obtained from the local people. Among eight identified disease categories in the area, respiratory diseases, febrile illness and throat problems, and internal parasites and gastrointestine disorders were the most frequently encountered with high value of ICF. This may indicate high incidence of these types of disease in the area, possibly due to the poor socioeconomic and sanitary conditions of the people perhaps related to drinking stream water and food preparation. This finding is in line with another study conducted in northwestern Ethiopia [
With this study, informants noted that resettlement program contributed to biodiversity conservation in the original place as evidence of the TMPs that are regenerating in the wild vegetation and former farmlands since the local people left Delanta. This was mainly seen in the lowlands (1700–2600 m a.s.l.) of the study area that was hard hit by the 1984/85 drought as described by Rahmato [
Although many positive outcomes were seen in the recovery of habitats, there was some loss of LK and culture of resettled people after resettlement. Such mixed results were also shown in another study [
Out of total 133 collected species, 17 (13%) species are endemic TMPs in the flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. As it holds true for the total species, Asteraceae is also the leading family with five species, followed by Lamiaceae with three endemic species. These were cross-checked with different volumes of flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea and Red List book [
Based on the reports of informants, the trends of indicator species revealed that the last 40 decades were much detrimental to natural vegetation in the area. Furthermore, wild plants used in TMPs are being lost more quickly in wild vegetation than homegardens as illustrated in Figure
In view of long human settlement history of the area, the natural vegetation has enormously been altered. It came out clearly from the study that the threats facing TMPs are both anthropogenic (e.g., agricultural expansion, which is ranked 1st) and natural factors (e.g., drought), which are having detrimental effects on wild medicinal resources. This finding is in agreement with other studies conducted elsewhere in Ethiopia [
When the pressures of threats increased and some multiuse plants became rare in the wild vegetation, most traditional healers and some local people started to conserve them by growing such species intentionally in their homegardens and farmland margins. This report is consistent with that of Asfaw and Tadesse [
It is obvious that overgrazing and deforestation are very serious in northern highlands of Ethiopia. Presently, however, the local people have practiced check dam construction and tree plantation with enclosed vegetation of such highlands to reduce erosive rain storms and to preserve useful plants as well. The significance of TMPs to people can be sufficiently great that arrangements made for the conservation and sustainable use of TMPs have now grown to be a timely issue in Ethiopia. In general, biodiversity has to be protected for its multidirectional values [
Though the local people are exposed to high cultural and habit change due to the repeated drought and resettlement conditions, the ethnobotanical knowledge on classification of their ecology and diverse use of TMPs were transmitted orally through generations. Different studies affirmed that the local people are knowledgeable about their environment in general and plants in particular [
Comparison of LK on TMPs among age groups proves that knowledge on TMPs is wider among elderly persons while the youngsters are comparatively less knowledgeable. Since majority of young age groups are educated, modern education might have made the young generation underestimate the traditional practice. This is in line with the study of TMP in Kafficho and Butajira people [
The present study indicated that the local people of Delanta are custodians of large number of TMP species (133) that they named and explained for the treatment of various human and livestock ailments (76). Notably, the highest proportion of TMPs (65.8%) were cited for human ailments. Various ethnobotanical analytical tools showed that the local people preferred some species over the others in treating ailments and other uses. About 85% of these resources also provide multiple uses. While most of the TMPs are harvested from the wild vegetation, the area is exposed to many threats such as agricultural expansion and other human induced pressures. As a result of these factors, some of the plants and the associated LK are under threat and declining. The ethnobotanical knowledge on TMP species varied among key informants, permanent residents, and returnees. Returnees were the least knowledgeable and this is one of the negative consequences of resettlement. The findings in general indicate that resettlement provided an opportunity to improve the restoration of useful plants and proved to be advantageous to biodiversity conservation in the original location (Delanta) and people should be resettled within their close community in order to avoid any disruption of their LK.
Homegardens and farmland margins have contributed to serving as preserving places of species presently in short supply and this is in need of further enhancing. Thus, strengthening the conservation of TMPs in such places is very important. For better diversity of species in general and TMPs in particular, in situ conservation measures need to be particularly directed to plant community types which could allow conservation of 50% of TMPs (
The authors declared that they have no competing interests.
Ethnobotany of TMPs and the impacts of resettlement discussed herein were funded by NARF project. The authors are grateful to the taxonomic experts and the technical staff of the National Herbarium for providing materials and technical assistance during identification. They would also like to thank the people of Delanta, particularly informants and employees of district offices, for their hospitability and generous help in sharing field information pertinent to their study. The authors are also grateful to Professors Ensermu Kelbessa and Zerihun Woldu for their helpful comments on the earlier version of the research output.