Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2017 (2017), Article ID 4901329, 22 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/4901329

Research Article

Trends in Medicinal Uses of Edible Wild Vertebrates in Brazil

Rômulo Romeu Nóbrega Alves,¹ Tacyana Pereira Ribeiro Oliveira,² and Maria Franco Trindade Medeiros³

¹Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Estadual da Paraíba, 58429-500 Campina Grande, PB, Brazil
²Centro de Ciências Biológicas e Sociais Aplicadas (CCBSA), Universidade Estadual da Paraíba, 58071-160 João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
³Unidade Acadêmica de Biologia e Química, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande, 58175-000 Cuité, PB, Brazil

Correspondence should be addressed to Maria Franco Trindade Medeiros; mariaftm@hotmail.com

Received 5 April 2017; Accepted 3 July 2017; Published 15 August 2017

Academic Editor: Ghee T. Tan

Copyright © 2017 Rômulo Romeu Nóbrega Alves et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract.

The use of food medicines is a widespread practice worldwide. In Brazil, such use is often associated with wild animals, mostly focusing on vertebrate species. Here we assessed taxonomic and ecological trends in traditional uses of wild edible vertebrates in the country, through an extensive ethnobiological database analysis. Our results showed that at least 165 health conditions are reportedly treated by edible vertebrate species (), mostly fishes and mammals. However, reptiles stand out presenting a higher plasticity in the treatment of multiple health conditions. Considering the 20 disease categories recorded, treatment prescriptions were similar within continental (i.e., terrestrial and freshwater) and also within coastal and marine habitats, which may reflect locally related trends in occurrence and use of the medicinal fauna. The comprehension of the multiplicity and trends in the therapeutic uses of Brazilian vertebrates is of particular interest from a conservation perspective, as several threatened species were recorded.

1. Introduction

Wildlife represents an immeasurable source of raw materials that support health systems of different human cultures that depend on nature as a source of medicines to treat and cure illnesses [1]. Plants and animals have been used as medicinal sources since ancient times, and even today animal- and plant-based pharmacopeias continue to play an essential role in health care. Although plants and plant-derived materials make up the majority of the ingredients used in most traditional medical systems globally, whole animals, animal parts, and animal-derived products also constitute important elements of the materia medica [2–6].

The use of animal species as remedies, although representing an important component of traditional medicines (sometimes in association with plant species), has been much less studied than medicinal plants [1]. However, the importance of nonbotanical remedies (those of animal and mineral origin) is emerging [7], resulting in a recent boom in publications focusing on zootherapy [8–11].

Brazil is well known for its rich social/cultural diversity, as represented by more than two hundred indigenous people and a range of local communities, which in turn have contributed to the high diversity of traditional knowledge and practices which include the use of medicinal animals. Indeed, animals have been used as a source of medicine in the country and have played a significant role in healing practices as many people have used animals as medicines or alternative or supplementary treatments [12, 13].

Hence, Brazil can be considered a model to extensive zootherapeutic studies, since the use of animals and animal-derived products is widespread among the country’s human cultures, as predicted by the zootherapeutic universality hypothesis [14]. Furthermore, the concomitant use of wild animals for nutritional and medicinal purposes is also diffuse in several localities in the country, thus highlighting their important role as food medicine in well-established folk medical practices [15].

Recent research has highlighted the predominant use of vertebrates as medicinal fauna in different medical systems worldwide [1]. As remarked by Perry [16], this is an expected trend, considering the frequent interactions between people and vertebrates—typically large-bodied animals, which may provide a wide range of medicinal products. This raises particular conservation concerns, as some of these taxa are overharvested for their medicinal uses and are now threatened [1].

In this article, we provide an assessment of the uses of wild edible vertebrate species in Brazilian Traditional Medicine. The study focused on the following questions: (1) which edible vertebrate taxa are mostly used in the Brazilian Traditional Medicine? (2) Do the conditions treated by medicinal resources vary with taxonomical group and/or animal’s habitat?

2. Methods

Data used in this research resulted from an extensive analysis of the ethnozoological database provided by the Laboratório de Etnozoologia, Universidade Estadual da Paraíba. The database comprises information from ethnozoological studies on faunal medicinal use performed in all Brazilian regions. Additional data was gathered through information available in reviews published by the laboratory researchers [17–19].

Data analysis comprised information on species of edible vertebrates used as medicines, their family classification, habitats, conservation status, and conditions to which animals were prescribed. We only considered those taxa that could be identified to species level, and the scientific nomenclature of the taxa recorded (fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals) and/or habitats were in accordance with the following databases: Fishbase (Froese and Pauly, 2016; http://www.fishbase.org/), Amphibian Species of the World (http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/amphibia/index.php), The Reptile Database (http://www.reptile-database.org/), and Mammal Species of the World [20]. With regard to habitat analysis, marine and estuarine species were grouped in the same category (i.e., coastal and marine); if a marine species was also reported to freshwater environments, it habitat was categorized as costal and marine/freshwater. Moreover, continental species which could inhabit both terrestrial and aquatic systems were considered as semiaquatic species.

The conservation status of the analysed species follows the International Union for the Conservation of Nature [21], the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora [22], and the Brazilian red lists (decrees 444 and 445, Brazilian Ministry of Environment, 2014). Health conditions considered in this research were categorized by the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10 Version: 2016; http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2016/en).

2.1. Data Analysis

All data were verified for normal distribution (Shapiro-Wilk’s test) and homogeneity of variance (Levene’s test) and nonparametric tests were performed when those assumptions were not met.

A Kruskal-Wallis test (followed by Dunn’s post hoc test) and an ANOVA were performed to determine whether the number of health conditions treated per species varied among vertebrate taxonomic groups or habitat types, respectively. Resemblance between health conditions treated (grouped into ICD’s categories) and taxonomic groups or animals’ habitat types were assessed based on Jaccard’s similarity index, where resulting matrices were used to perform cluster analyses. Due to low number of species recorded (), amphibians were excluded from all statistical analysis regarding taxonomic groups.

3. Results

At least 204 edible vertebrate species have been used in Brazilian Traditional Medicine (see Table 1). Fishes were the most represented group ( species), followed by mammals (), reptiles (), birds (), and amphibians (). Most medicinal animals are aquatic (58.9%), mostly inhabiting freshwater (27.0% of total counts) and coastal/marine (26.5% of total counts) environments (Figure 1). Terrestrial and semiaquatic vertebrates corresponded to 38.7% and 2.5% of medicinal vertebrates recorded, respectively.

Table 1: Vertebrate species (scientific and common names, when available) used as medicine food in Brazil, with remarks to habitats, conservation status, and health conditions to which each animal is prescribed. Families and species name in alphabetical order.

Taxa
Health conditions treated
Habitat

Fishes

    Anostomidae

        Leporinus friderici (Bloch, 1794), threespot leporinus
Earache
Freshwater

        Schizodon knerii (Steindachner, 1875), “piau-branco”
Leucoma, edema
Freshwater

    Arapaimidae

        Arapaima gigas (Schinz, 1822), “arapaima,” “pirarucu,” “pirosca”
Asthma, pneumonia
Freshwater

    Arhynchobatidae

        Atlantoraja cyclophora (Regan, 1903), eyespot skate
Haemorrhage after delivery
Marine

    Ariidae

        Aspistor luniscutis (Valenciennes, 1840), “bagre-amarelo”
Pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting
Marine/brackish

        Bagre bagre (Linnaeus, 1766), coco sea catfish, “bagre-fidalgo”
Injuries caused by itself
Marine/brackish

        Genidens barbus (Lacepède, 1803), white sea catfish, “bagre-do-mangue”
Pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting
Marine/brackish

        Genidens genidens (Cuvier, 1829), sea catfish, “bagre”
Injuries caused by itself
Marine/brackish

    Aspredinidae

        Aspredinichthys tibicen (Valenciennes, 1840), tenbarbed banjo, “viola”
Asthma
Freshwater/brackish

        Aspredo aspredo (Linnaeus, 1758), banjo catfish, “banjo,” “viola”
Asthma
Freshwater/brackish

    Auchenipteridae

        Trachelyopterus galeatus (Linnaeus, 1766),“cumbá”
Umbilical hernia, asthma, sexual impotence
Freshwater

    Balistidae

        Balistes capriscus Gmelin, 1789, grey triggerfish, “peixe-porco”
Bronchitis
Marine/reef

        Balistes vetula Linnaeus, 1758, queen triggerfish, “cangulo,” “capado,” “peroá”

Stroke, asthma, thrombosis, earache, pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting, haemorrhage, ascites, schistosomiasis, appendicitis, menstrual cramps, gastritis
Marine/reef

    Batrachoididae

        Thalassophryne nattereri Steindachner, 1876, venomous toadfish, “niquim”
Pain relief caused in injuries by the species’ sting
Marine/brackish

    Bryconidae

        Brycon nattereri Günther, 1864, “pirapitinga,” “matrinchã”
Flu
Freshwater

    Callichthyidae

        Callichthys callichthys (Linnaeus, 1758), “cascarudo,” “caboge”
Asthma, umbilical hernia
Freshwater

    Lamnidae

        Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758), great white shark
Osteoporosis
Marine/brackish

        Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque, 1810, shortfin mako
Osteoporosis
Marine

    Carcharhinidae

        Carcharhinus falciformis (Müller & Henle, 1839), silky shark
Osteoporosis
Marine/reef

        Carcharhinus leucas (Müller & Henle, 1839), bull shark, “tubarão-cabeça-chata”
Osteoporosis
Marine/brackish/reef/freshwater

        Carcharhinus limbatus (Müller & Henle, 1839), blacktip shark, “sucuri preto”
Osteoporosis
Marine/brackish/reef

        Carcharhinus obscurus (Lesueur, 1818), dusky shark
Osteoporosis
Marine/brackish/reef

        Carcharhinus porosus (Ranzani, 1839), smalltail shark, “junteiro,” “cação-galha-preta”
Asthma, rheumatism, wounds, inflammations, osteoporosis, anaemia
Marine/brackish

        Galeocerdo cuvier (Péron & Lesueur, 1822), tiger shark, “jaguara”
Osteoporosis
Marine/brackish/reef

        Negaprion brevirostris (Poey, 1868), lemon shark
Osteoporosis
Marine/brackish/reef

        Rhizoprionodon lalandii (Müller & Henle, 1839), Brazilian sharpnose shark, “cação”
Rheumatism, osteoporosis
Marine

        Rhizoprionodon porosus (Poey, 1861), Caribbean sharpnose shark, “cação”
Rheumatism, osteoporosis
Marine/brackish/reef/freshwater

    Sphyrnidae

        Sphyrna lewini (Griffith & Smith, 1834), scalloped hammerhead, “peixe-martelo,” “cação-panã,” “cação-chapéu”
Asthma, wounds, rheumatism, inflammation
Marine/brackish/reef

        Sphyrna mokarran (Rüppell, 1837), great hammerhead
Osteoporosis
Marine/brackish/reef

        Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus, 1758), smooth hammerhead
Osteoporosis
Marine/brackish

    Squalidae

        Squalus cubensis Howell Rivero, 1936, Cuban dogfish
Osteoporosis
Marine

    Rhinobatidae

        Rhinobatos percellens (Walbaum, 1792), Chola guitarfish
Osteoporosis
Marine

    Centropomidae

        Centropomus parallelus Poey, 1860, fat snook
Nephritis
Marine/brackish/freshwater

        Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch, 1792), common snook, “rubalão”
Edema in the legs
Marine/brackish/reef/freshwater

    Characidae

        Astyanax bimaculatus (Linnaeus, 1758), twospot astyanax, “piaba-mirim,” “machadinha,” “piaba chata”
Alcoholism, leishmaniosis, skin burns, wounds, rheumatism
Freshwater

    Clupeidae

        Harengula jaguana (Poey, 1865), scaled herring, “sardinha”
Osteoporosis
Marine/brackish/reef

        Opisthonema oglinum (Lesueur, 1818), Atlantic thread herring, “sardinha”
Alcoholism, osteoporosis
Marine/reef

    Cynodontidae

        Hydrolycus scomberoides (Cuvier, 1816), Payara, “cachorra”
Earache
Freshwater

    Dasyatidae

        Dasyatis guttata (Bloch & Schneider, 1801), longnose stingray, “raia branca”
Asthma, pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting, burns
Marine

        Dasyatis marianae Gomes, Rosa & Gadig, 2000, Brazilian large-eyed stingray, “raia mariquita,” “raia de fogo”
Asthma, pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting, burns
Marine/reef

    Diodontidae

        Chilomycterus antillarum Jordan & Rutter, 1897, web burrfish
Wounds, lump
Marine/reef

        Chilomycterus spinosus spinosus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Wounds, lump
Marine/brackish

    Doradidae

        Franciscodoras marmoratus (Lütken, 1874), “Urutu”
Injuries caused by itself
Freshwater

        Lithodoras dorsalis (Valenciennes, 1840), Rock-bacu
Swelling
Freshwater

        Megalodoras uranoscopus (Eigenmann & Eigenmann, 1888), “cuiu-cuiu”
Rheumatism
Freshwater

        Oxydoras niger (Valenciennes, 1821), ripsaw catfish, “cuiu-cuiu”
Rheumatism
Freshwater

        Platydoras costatus (Linnaeus, 1758), Raphael catfish, “cuiu-cuiu”
Rheumatism
Freshwater

        Pterodoras granulosus (Valenciennes, 1821), granulated catfish, “cuiu-cuiu”
Rheumatism
Freshwater

    Echeneidae

        Echeneis naucrates Linnaeus, 1758, live sharksucker, “rêmora,” “pegador”
Asthma, bronchitis
Marine/brackish/reef

        Remora remora (Linnaeus, 1758), shark sucker, “rêmora”
Osteoporosis
Marine/reef

    Erythrinidae

        Erythrinus erythrinus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801), “Matrôe”
Asthma
Freshwater

        Hoplias malabaricus (Bloch, 1794),trahira, “traíra”
Ophthalmological problems, rheumatism, cataracts, wounds, snake bite, conjunctivitis, stroke, thrombosis, asthma, toothache, fever, earache, diarrhoea, deafness, boils, bleeding, alcoholism, tetanus, sore throat, itching, sprains, leucoma
Freshwater

        Hoplias aimara (Valenciennes, 1847)
Earache
Freshwater

    Cichlidae

        Cichla melaniae Kullander & Ferreira, 2006
Pain relief in injuries caused by the ray sting
Freshwater

    Gadidae

        Gadus morhua Linnaeus, 1758, Atlantic cod, “bacalhau”
Boils
Marine/brackish

    Ginglymostomatidae

        Ginglymostoma cirratum (Bonnaterre, 1788),nurse shark, “cação-lixa”
Rheumatism, osteoporosis
Marine/brackish/reef

    Gymnotidae

        Electrophorus electricus (Linnaeus, 1766), electric eel, “poraquê”
Sprains, bruises, insect bites, snake bite, asthma, flu, pain in general, muscle strain, rheumatism, osteoporosis, deafness, pneumonia, itching
Freshwater

    Heptapteridae

        Pimelodella brasiliensis (Steindachner, 1876), “mandim”
Injuries caused by that fish species
Freshwater

    Holocentridae

        Holocentrus adscensionis (Osbeck, 1765), squirrelfish, “jaguaricá”
Wounds
Marine/reef

    Megalopidae

        Megalops atlanticus Valenciennes, 1847, tarpon, “camurupim,” “cangurupim”
Stroke, headache, asthma, shortness of breath, thrombosis, chest pain, injuries caused by bang
Marine/brackish/reef/freshwater

    Monacanthidae

        Cantherhines macrocerus (Hollard, 1853), American whitespotted filefish
Asthma
Marine/reef

        Monacanthus ciliatus (Mitchill, 1818), fringed filefish
Asthma
Marine/reef

    Muraenidae

        Gymnothorax funebris Ranzani, 1839, green moray, “moréia verde”
Bleeding (wounds)
Marine/reef

        Gymnothorax moringa (Cuvier, 1829), spotted moray, “moréia pintada”
Bleeding (wounds)
Marine/reef

        Gymnothorax vicinus (Castelnau, 1855), purplemouth moray, “moréia”
Bleeding (wounds)
Marine/reef

    Myliobatidae

        Aetobatus narinari (Euphrasen, 1790), spotted eagle ray, “raia-chita”
Asthma, pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting, burns, haemorrhage
Marine/reef

    Narcinidae

        Narcine bancroftii (Griffith & Smith, 1834), lesser electric ray
Pain
Marine

        Narcine brasiliensis (Olfers, 1831), Brazilian electric ray, “raia elétrica”
Toothache
Marine/reef

    Pimelodidae

        Phractocephalus hemioliopterus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801), redtail catfish, “Pirarara”
Asthma, wounds, hernia, burns in the skin, rheumatism, flu, cough
Freshwater

        Pseudoplatystoma corruscans (Spix & Agassiz, 1829), spotted sorubim, “surubim”
Flu, removal of wrath
Freshwater

        Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum (Lunnaeus, 1776), barred sorubim, “surubim”
Cold
Freshwater

        Sorubimichthys planiceps (Spix & Agassiz, 1829), firewood catfish, “surubim chicote”
Leishmaniosis, tuberculosis
Freshwater

        Zungaro zungaro (Humboldt, 1821), gilded catfish, black manguruyu, “jaú”
Asthma, toothache, earache, wounds, athlete’s foot, burns in the skin, rheumatism, flu
Freshwater

    Potamotrygonidae

        Paratrygon aiereba (Müller & Henle, 1841), discus ray,“arraia”
Asthma, hernia, flu, pneumonia, cough, earache, burns
Freshwater

        Plesiotrygon iwamae Rosa, Castello & Thorson, 1987, long-tailed river stingray
Pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting, wounds, cracks in the sole of the feet
Freshwater

        Potamotrygon hystrix (Müller & Henle, 1834),porcupine river stingray, “arraia”
Asthma, hernia, flu, pneumonia, cough, earache, burns
Freshwater

        Potamotrygon motoro (Müller & Henle, 1841), South American freshwater stingray, ocellate river stingray, “arraia”
Asthma, hernia, flu, pneumonia, cough, earache, burns
Freshwater

        Potamotrygon orbignyi (Castelnau, 1855), smooth back river stingray, “arraia”
Pain relief in injuries caused by that species’ sting
Freshwater

    Pristidae

        Pristis pectinata Latham, 1794, smalltooth sawfish, “espadarte,” “peixe-serra”
Asthma, rheumatism, arthritis
Marine/brackish/freshwater

        Pristis perotteti Müller & Henle, 1841, largetooth sawfish, “espadarte”
Asthma, rheumatism, arthritis
Marine/brackish/freshwater

    Prochilodontidae

        Prochilodus argenteus Spix & Agassiz, 1829, “curimatá-pacú," “curimatá”
To avoid swelling of the breast feeding, mycosis
Freshwater

        Prochilodus nigricans Spix & Agassiz, 1829, black prochilodus, “curimatã”
Chilblain, skin burns, wounds, rheumatism, eye pains
Freshwater

    Serrasalmidae

        Colossoma macropomum (Cuvier, 1818), cachama, “tambaqui”
Paralysis of arms and legs
Freshwater

        Mylossoma duriventre (Cuvier, 1818), pacupeba, “pacu-manteiga”
Venereal disease
Freshwater

        Serrasalmus brandtii Lütken, 1875, white piranha, “pirambeba”
Inflammations, sexual impotence
Freshwater

    Sciaenidae

        Cynoscion acoupa (Lacepède, 1801), acoupa weakfish, “pescada amarela”
Renal failure
Marine/brackish/freshwater

        Cynoscion leiarchus (Cuvier, 1830), smooth weakfish, “pescada branca”
Renal failure
Marine/brackish

        Micropogonias furnieri (Desmarest, 1823), whitemouth croaker, “corvina”
Pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting, cough, asthma, bronchitis
Marine/brackish

        Pachyurus francisci (Cuvier, 1830), San Francisco croaker, “cruvina-de-bico”
Asthma, urinary incontinence, backache
Freshwater

        Plagioscion squamosissimus (Heckel, 1840), South American silver croaker, “curvina”
Urinary disorders, haemorrhage, snake bites
Freshwater

        Plagioscion surinamensis (Bleeker, 1873), Bashaw,“pacora,” “curvina”
Urinary disorders, haemorrhage, snake bites
Freshwater

    Sparidae

        Calamus penna (Valenciennes, 1830), sheepshead porgy, “peixe-pena”
Asthma
Marine/reef

    Synbranchidae

        Synbranchus marmoratus Bloch, 1795, marbled swamp eel,“muçum”
Bronchitis
Freshwater/brackish

    Tetraodontidae

        Colomesus psittacus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801), banded puffer, “baiacu”
Breast cancer, backache, warts
Marine/brackish/freshwater

        Sphoeroides testudineus (Linnaeus, 1758), checkered puffer, “baiacu”
Rheumatism
Marine/brackish/reef

    Trichiuridae

        Trichiurus lepturus Linnaeus, 1758, largehead hairtail
Asthma
Marine/brackish

    Urotrygonidae

        Urotrygon microphthalmum Delsman, 1941, smalleyed round stingray, “raia”
Asthma, pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting, burns
Marine

Amphibians

    Bufonidae

        Rhinella jimi (Stevaux 2002)
Urinary incontinence, dental caries, cancer, wounds, boils, erysipelas acne, inducing abortion
Semiaquatic

    Leptodactylidae

        Leptodactylus cf. labyrinthicus (Spix, 1824), South American pepper frog, “jia-de-peito,” “rã- pimenta”
Earache, rheumatism, joint pain, cancer, sore throat
Semiaquatic

        Leptodactylus vastus Lutz, 1930, South American pepper frog, ra-pimenta
Sore throat, cough, asthma, arthritis, backache, tonsillitis, hoarseness
Semiaquatic

Reptiles

    Iguanidae

        Iguana iguana (Linnaeus, 1758), Common iguana, “camaleão”
Earache, erysipelas, asthma, rheumatism, edema, abscesses, joint pain, wounds, acne, athlete’s foot, sore throat, swelling, burn, tumour, sucking a splinter out of skin or flesh, boil, injuries caused by the spines of the “arraia” and others fishes, inflammation, hernia
Terrestrial

    Teiidae

        Tupinambis merianae (Duméril & Bibron, 1839), Lizard, “tegu,” “tejuaçú”
Earache, deafness, rheumatism, erysipelas, skin thorns and wounds, respiratory diseases, sore throat, snake bite, asthma, tumour, swelling, infection, bronchitis
Terrestrial

        Tupinambis teguixin (Linnaeus 1758), Lizard, “tegu,” “tejuaçú”
Sexual impotence, rheumatism, erysipelas, dermatitis, snake bites, asthma, tetanus, earache, thrombosis, wounds, infection of nail, swelling, herpes zoster, irritation when milk teeth are erupting, jaundice, inflammation, tumour, sore throat, infection, bronchitis, injuries caused by the spines of the “arraia,” pain relief in injuries caused by snake bites, toothache, sucking a splinter out of skin or flesh, headache, cough, stroke, coarse throat
Terrestrial

    Boidae

        Boa constrictor (Linnaeus, 1758), Boa, “jibóia”
Rheumatism, lung disease, thrombosis, boils, tuberculosis, stomach ache, edema, snake bite, cancer, ache, swelling, helping to prevent abortion, pain in the body, inflammation, athlete’s foot, calluses, tumours, cracks in the sole of the feet, goitre, sore throat, arthrosis, insect sting, dog bite, erysipelas, thrombosis, asthma, neck strain, strain muscle
Terrestrial

        Corallus hortolanus (Linnaeus, 1758), snake
Assisting in removing spines or other sharp structures from the skin, rheumatism
Terrestrial

        Eunectes murinus (Linnaeus, 1758), anaconda, “sucurujú,” “sucuri”
Wounds, skin problems, bruises, sprains, arthrosis, rheumatism, boils, sexual impotence, headache, sore throat, thrombosis, swelling, tumour, asthma, muscle strain, numbness, syphilis, reducing pain, luxation
Semiaquatic

        Epicrates cenchria (Linnaeus, 1758), Brazilian rainbow boa, “salamanta”
Rheumatism, pain in articulations, injuries caused by itself, sore throat, earache
Terrestrial

    Crotalidae

        Crotalus durissus (Linnaeus, 1758), Neotropical rattlesnake, “cascavel”
Asthma, snake bite, thrombosis, wounds, luxation, rheumatism, pain in the legs, erysipelas, deafness, epilepsy, skin diseases, tuberculosis, hanseniasis, backache, tumour, boil, headache, earache, osteoporosis, sore throat, toothache, pain relief in injuries caused by sting of insects and snake bite, irritation when milk teeth are erupting, tonsillitis, impotence, fatigue

    Chelidae

        Phrynops geoffroanus (Schweigger, 1812), Geoffroy’s side-necked turtle, “cágado”
Asthma, sore throat, swelling, earache, rheumatism, arthrosis, healing of umbilical cord of newborn baby, mumps
Freshwater

        Phrynops tuberosus (Peters, 1870)
Diphtheria, headache, earache, pain in the breast, wounds, furuncle, gastritis, swelling, haemorrhoids, sore throat, backache, eye problems, sucking a splinter out of skin or flesh, rheumatism, deafness
Freshwater

        Mesoclemmys tuberculata (Luederwaldt, 1926), tuberculate toadhead turtle, “cágado,” “cágado-d’água”
Rheumatism, discharge, thrombosis, bronchitis, diarrhoea, haemorrhage, asthma, sore throat, hoarseness, muscle aches
Freshwater

    Cheloniidae

        Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758), loggerhead turtle, “tartaruga cabeçuda”
Injuries caused by bang, toothache, diabetes, headache, backache, wounds, cough, bronchitis, asthma, thrombosis, rheumatism, stroke, hoarseness, flu, backache, earache, sore throat, swelling
Marine

        Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758), green sea turtle, “tartaruga verde,” “aruanã”
Injuries caused by bang, toothache, diabetes, headache, backache, wounds, cough, bronchitis, asthma, flu, thrombosis, rheumatism, toothache, stroke, hoarseness, earache, sore throat, swelling, whooping cough, arthritis, erysipelas, boil, wounds, arthrosis, inflammation
Marine

        Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus, 1766), Atlantic hawksbill, “tartaruga de pente”
Injuries caused by bang, toothache, diabetes, headache, backache, wounds, cough, bronchitis, asthma, thrombosis, stroke, hoarseness, flu, rheumatism, earache, sore throat, swelling
Marine

        Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz, 1829), olive ridley
Injuries caused by bang, toothache, diabetes, headache, backache, wounds, cough, flu, bronchitis, asthma, thrombosis, rheumatism, stroke, hoarseness
Marine

    Dermochelyidae

        Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli, 1761), leatherback turtle, “tartaruga de couro”
Rheumatism, earache, sore throat, swelling
Marine

    Geoemydidae

        Rhinoclemmys punctularia (Daudin, 1802), spot-legged turtle
Wounds, tumour, erysipelas, earache, rheumatism
Semiaquatic

    Podocnemididae

        Podocnemis expansa (Schweiger, 1812), Amazon river turtle, “tartaruga da amazônia”
Inflammation, acne, tumour, boil, rheumatism, pterygium, skin spots, backache, earache, arthrosis, arthritis, swelling, wrinkle
Freshwater

        Podocnemis unifilis (Troschel, 1848), yellow-spotted river turtle, “tracajá”
Wounds, tumour, erysipelas, earache, rheumatism
Freshwater

        Podocnemis sextuberculata Cornalia, 1849, six-tubercled Amazon River turtle
Blackhead, acne
Freshwater

        Peltocephalus dumeriliana Schweigger 1812, “Cabeçuda”
Blackhead, acne
Freshwater

    Testudinidae

        Chelonoidis carbonaria (Spix, 1824), red-footed tortoise, “jabuti”
Catarrh, erysipelas, bronchitis, stopping the sensation of getting thirsty, asthma
Terrestrial

        Chelonoidis denticulata (Linnaeus, 1766), yellow-footed tortoise, “jabuti”
Sore throat, rheumatism, hernia, wounds, leishmaniosis, varicocele, earache
Terrestrial

    Kinosternidae

        Kinosternon acutum (Linnaeus 1766), Tabasco Mud Turtle
Muscle aches
Freshwater

    Alligatoridae

        Caiman crocodilus (Linnaeus, 1758), common cayman, “jacaré tinga”
Asthma, stroke, bronchitis, backache, earache, rheumatism, thrombosis, sexual impotence, snake bites (antidote), evil eye, irritation when milk teeth are erupting, discharge, swelling, scratch, athlete’s foot, ophthalmological problems, asthma, sore throat, amulet used as a protection against snake bite, rheumatism, hernia, prostate problems, infection, thrombosis
Freshwater

        Caiman latirostris (Daudin, 1801), broad-snouted caiman, “jacaré-do-papo-amarelo”
Asthma, sore throat, amulet used as a protection against snake bite, rheumatism, irritation when milk teeth are erupting, hernia, prostate problems
Freshwater

        Melanosuchus niger (Spix, 1825), black caiman, “jacare açú”
Thrombosis, infection, swelling, asthma, amulet used as a protection against snake bite, injuries caused by spines of the “arraia,” pain relief in injuries caused by snake bites
Freshwater

        Paleosuchus palpebrosus (Cuvier, 1807), dwarf caiman, “jacaré coroa,” “jacaré,” “jacaré-preto,” “crocodilo”
Snake bite, asthma, stroke, rheumatism, thrombosis, backache, sexual impotence, edema, mycosis, evil eye, irritation when milk teeth are erupting, snake bite (antidote), discharge, sore throat, amulet used as a protection against snake bite, hernia, prostate problems
Freshwater

        Paleosuchus trigonatus (Schneider, 1801), smooth-fronted caiman, “Jacaré coroa”
Rheumatism
Freshwater

Birds

    Anatidae

        Sarkidiornis sylvicola H. Ihering & R. Ihering, 1907, American Comb Duck, “putrião”
Bleeding (wounds)
Terrestrial

    Anhimidae

        Anhima cornuta (Linnaeus, 1766), horned screamer, “anuhma”
Intoxication from poisonous animals
Terrestrial

    Ardeidae

        Ardea cocoi (Linnaeus, 1766), white-necked Heron
Swelling, inflammation, injuries caused by the spines of the “arraia” and others fishes, asthma, boil, tumour, inflammation, rheumatism, earache
Terrestrial

    Caprimulgidae

        Nyctidromus albicollis (Gmelin, 1789), pauraque, “bacurau”
Amulets, snake bite
Terrestrial

    Cracidae

        Penelope jacucaca (Spix, 1825), white-browed guan, “jacu”
Insomnia, epilepsy
Terrestrial

        Pauxi tuberosa (Spix, 1825), razor-billed Curassow
Bleeding, snakebite, indigestion, stroke, lack of appetite in children, pneumonia
Terrestrial

    Ciconiidae

        Ciconia maguari (Gmelin, 1789), maguari stork
Injuries caused by the spines of the “arraia” and others fishes, thrombosis
Terrestrial

    Columbidae

        Columbina minuta (Linnaeus, 1766), plain-breasted ground dove
Lack of appetite, nausea during pregnancy
Terrestrial

        Columbina picui (Temminck, 1813), Picui Dove
Lack of appetite, nausea during pregnancy, deafness
Terrestrial

        Columbina talpacoti (Temminck, 1810), Ruddy Ground Dove, “rolinha-caldo-de-feijão”
Lack of appetite, nausea during pregnancy, deafness
Terrestrial

        Leptotila rufaxilla (Richard & Bernard, 1792), Grey-Fronted Dove, “juriti”
Lack of appetite, nausea during pregnancy, deafness, stye, thrombosis
Terrestrial

    Corvidae

        Cyanocorax cyanopogon (Wied, 1821), white-naped jay, “can-can”
Asthma
Terrestrial

    Cuculidae

        Crotophaga ani Linnaeus, 1758, smooth-billed ani
Bronchitis, thrombosis, asthma, whooping cough
Terrestrial

        Guira guira (Gmelin, 1788), guira cuckoo, “anum branco”
Asthma
Terrestrial

    Charadriidae

        Vanellus chilensis (Molina, 1782), southern lapwing, “quero-quero”
Helping to stay awake
Terrestrial

    Emberizidae

        Coereba flaveola (Linnaeus, 1758), bananaquit, “caga-sebo”
Thrombosis
Terrestrial

    Furnariidae

        Furnarius rufus (Gmelin, 1788), rufous hornero, “maria-barreira”
Mumps
Terrestrial

    Podicipedidae

        Tachybaptus dominicus (Linnaeus, 1766), Least Grebe, “mergulhão-pequeno,” “mergulhão,” “mergulhão-preto”
Eye problems
Semiaquatic

    Rallidae

        Aramides cajanea (Statius Müller, 1776), grey-necked wood-rail, “saracura”
Evil eye
Terrestrial

    Rheidae

        Rhea americana (Linnaeus, 1758), greater rhea, “ema”
General aches, rheumatism, thrombosis, strokes
Terrestrial

    Tinamidae

        Crypturellus noctivagus (Wied, 1820), yellow-legged tinamou,“zabele”
Thrombosis, stroke
Terrestrial

        Crypturellus tataupa (Temminck, 1815), Tataupa Tinamou
Assisting children who take longer than  usual to start walking
Terrestrial

        Crypturellus parvirostris (Wagler, 1827), small-billed Tinamou
Assisting children who take longer than  usual to start walking
Terrestrial

        Nothura boraquira (Spix, 1825), white-bellied nothura, “codorna”
Thrombosis, stroke, earache
Terrestrial

        Nothura maculosa (Temminck, 1815), Spotted Nothura, “lambú espanta-boiada,” “lambú-de-capoeira”
Snake bite
Terrestrial

        Tinamus tao Temminck, 1815, Grey Tinamou
Snake bite
Terrestrial

        Rhynchotus rufescens (Temminck, 1815), red-winged tinamou,“perdiz”
Thrombosis, snake bites (antidote)
Terrestrial

Mammals

    Agoutidae

        Cuniculus paca (Linnaeus, 1766), spotted paca, “paca”
Wound in the breast caused by suckling, ophthalmological problems, stomach disorders, pterygium, sucking a splinter out of skin or flesh, injuries caused by the spines of “arraia,” control of cholesterol level
Terrestrial

    Bovidae

        Bubalus bubalis (Linnaeus, 1758), water buffalo (feral), “búfalo”
Rheumatism, osteoporosis, thrombosis
Terrestrial

    Bradypodidae

        Bradypus variegatus Shinz, 1825, brown-throated three-toed sloth, “Preguiça pequena”
Thrombosis
Terrestrial

        Bradypus tridactylus Linnaeus, 1758, pale-throated three-toed sloth, “Preguiça”
Thrombosis, insects bite, scorpions bite
Terrestrial

    Canidae

        Cerdocyon thous (Linnaeus, 1766), crab-eating fox, “raposa”
Rheumatism, flu, haemorrhoids, disorders after parturition (to accelerate recovery after parturition)
Terrestrial

        Chrysocyon brachyurus (Illiger, 1815), maned wolf, “lobo-guará”
Epilepsy
Terrestrial

        Dusicyon thous Linnaeus, 1766, crab-eating fox, “raposa”
Alcoholism, thrombosis, rheumatism, ophthalmological problems, diabetes, urinary infection
Terrestrial

    Caviidae

        Cavia aperea Erxleben, 1777, Brazilian Guinea Pig, “Preá”
Inflammation
Terrestrial

        Galea spixii (Wagler, 1831), Spix’s Yellow-Toothed Cavy
Inflammation
Terrestrial

        Kerodon rupestris (Wied-Neuwied, 1820), Rock Cavy, “Mocó”
Constipation
Terrestrial

    Cebidae

        Alouatta belzebul (Linnaeus, 1766), red-handed howler monkey, “guariba,” “macaco”
Whooping cough, sore throat, asthma
Terrestrial

        Alouattanigerrima Lönnberg, 1941, Black Howler Monkey
Whooping cough, inflammation
Terrestrial

        Alouatta macconnelli (Linnaeus, 1766), red howler monkey, “guariba vermelho”
Whooping cough, inflammation, accelerating parturition
Terrestrial

        Sapajus apella (Linnaeus, 1758), brow capuchin, “capuchin,” “macaco,” “macaco-prego”
Insect sting
Terrestrial

Cervidae

        Blastocerus dichotomus (Illiger, 1815), marsh deer, “cervo-do-pantanal”
Diarrhoea, vomit
Terrestrial

        Mazama americana (Erxleben, 1777), red brocket, “veado gaedo”
Stroke
Terrestrial

        Mazama simplicicornis (Illinger, 1811)
Diarrhoea, verminosis, evil eye
Terrestrial

        Mazama gouazoupira (G. Fischer, 1814), grey brocket, “veado-catingueiro”
Asthma, edema, rheumatism, snake bite, thrombosis, assisting children who take longer than  usual to start walking, toothache, wounds, sprains
Terrestrial

        Ozotocerus bezoarticus (Linnaeus, 1758), Pampas Deer, veado campineiro
Diarrhoea, verminosis, evil eye
Terrestrial

    Dasypodidae

        Dasypus novemcinctus (Linnaeus, 1758), nine-banded armadillo, “tatu galinha”
Thrombosis, insects bite, scorpions bite, edema, asthma, deafness, earache, evil eye
Terrestrial

        Euphractus sexcinctus (Linnaeus, 1758), six-banded armadillo “tatu peba”
Wounds, earache, evil eye, asthma, sore throat, pneumonia, sinusitis, deafness, coarse throat
Terrestrial

        Tolypeutes tricinctus (Linnaeus, 1758), Brazilian three-banded armadillo, “tatu-bola”
Thrombosis, rheumatism
Terrestrial

        Priodontes maximus (Kerr, 1792), giant armadillo, tatu-canastra
Snake bite
Terrestrial

    Dasyproctidae

        Dasyprocta prymnolopha Wagler, 1831, black-rumped agouti, “Cutia”
Asthma, thrombosis, earache
Terrestrial

    Delphinidae

        Sotalia fluviatilis Gervais & Deville (1853), grey dolphin, grey river dolphin, “boto”
Asthma, headache, rheumatism, hernia, womb disorders, sore throat, injuries caused by the spines of the “arraia,” swelling, haemorrhoids inflammation, wounds, earache, erysipelas, athlete’s foot, tumour, cancer
Freshwater

        Sotaliaguianensis (P. J. Van Bénéden, 1864), Guianan River Dolphin, “boto”
Asthma, headache, rheumatism, hernia, womb disorders, sore throat, injuries caused by the spines of the “arraia,” swelling, haemorrhoids inflammation, wounds, earache, erysipelas, athlete’s foot, tumour, cancer
Marine

    Didelphidae

        Didelphis albiventris (Lund, 1840), White-Eared Opossum, “timbú”
Boils
Terrestrial

        Didelphis marsupialis (Linnaeus, 1758), Black-Eared Opossum, “mucura,” “gambá,” “saruê”
Acne, wounds, bronchitis, joint pain, stomach ache, rheumatism, diarrhoea, inflammation, erysipelas, pain in gestation, asthma, headache, toothache, earache, sore throat
Terrestrial

    Echimyidae

        Thrichomys laurentius Thomas, 1904, “punaré”
Diarrhoea
Terrestrial

    Erethizontidae

        Coendou prehensilis (Linnaeus, 1758), Brazilian porcupine, “coandú,” “porco espinho”
Bronchitis, thrombosis, epilepsy, stroke, abscesses, conjunctivitis, asthma
Terrestrial

    Hydrochaeridae

        Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris (Linnaeus, 1766), capybara, “capibara,” “capivara”
Thrombosis, conjunctivitis, venereal disease, rheumatism, earache, strengthen bones, liver pain, bronchitis, asthma, wounds, erysipelas, cough
Terrestrial

    Iniidae

        Inia geoffrensis (Blainville, 1817), Amazon river dolphin, “boto rosa”
Asthma, headache, rheumatism, hernia, womb disorders, sore throat, injuries caused by the spines of the “arraia,” swelling, haemorrhoids inflammation, wounds, earache, erysipelas, athlete’s foot, tumour, cancer
Freshwater

    Leporidae

        Sylvilagus brasiliensis (Linnaeus, 1758), forest rabbit, tapeti, “coelho,” “coelho-do-mato”
Thrombosis, conjunctivitis, boils, burns
Terrestrial

    Mustelidae

        Conepatus semistriatus (Boddaert, 1785), striped hog-nosed skunk, “cangambá,” “gambambá,” tacaca
Rheumatism
Terrestrial

        Lontra longicaudis (Olfers, 1818), Neotropical Otter, “Lontra”
Thrombosis
Terrestrial

    Myrmecophagidae

        Myrmecophaga tridactyla Linnaeus, 1758, giant anteater, “tamanduá-bandeira”
Thrombosis, stroke
Terrestrial

        Myrmecophaga tetradactyla (Linnaeus, 1758), collared anteater, “tamanduá”
Edema, thrombosis
Terrestrial

    Procyonidae

        Nasua nasua (Linnaeus, 1766), South American coati, “coati,” “quati”
Sexual impotence, wounds, skin burns, snake bites, backache
Terrestrial

        Procyon cancrivorus (G. [Baron] Cuvier, 1798), crab-eating raccoon, “guaxinim”
Rheumatism, epilepsy, thrombosis, snake bite
Terrestrial

    Tapiridae

        Tapirus terrestris (Linnaeus, 1758), Brazilian tapir, “anta”
Rheumatism, arthrosis, osteoporosis, bursitis, muscular pain, asthma, tonsillitis
Terrestrial

    Tayassuidae

        Pecari tajacu Linnaeus 1758, collared peccary, “porco-do-mato,” “caititu”
Thrombosis, bronchitis, stroke
Terrestrial

        Tayassu pecari (Link, 1795), white-lipped peccary “porco-do-mato,” “queixada”
Thrombosis, stroke
Terrestrial

    Trichechidae

        Trichechus inunguis (Natterer, 1883), Amazonian manatee, “peixe-boi”
Sprains, vaginal discharge, injuries caused by bang, burns, asthma, menstrual cramps, rheumatism, sore throat, wounds, muscle strain, sucking a splinter out of skin or flesh, tumour, backache, hernia, arthrosis, luxation, menstrual cramps, insects bite
Freshwater

        Trichechus manatus (Linnaeus, 1758), West Indian Manatee, “peixe-boi”
Sprains, vaginal discharge, injuries caused by bang, burns, asthma, menstrual cramps, rheumatism, sore throat, wounds, muscle strain, sucking a splinter out of skin or flesh, tumour, backache hernia, arthrosis, luxation, menstrual cramps, insects bite
Marine

    Felidae

        Puma concolor (Linnaeus, 1771), mountain lion, “onça”
Wounds, leishmaniosis
Terrestrial

        Panthera onca (Linnaeus, 1758), jaguar, “onça”
Wounds, leishmaniosis
Terrestrial

        Herpailurus yagouaroundi (É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803), “gatovermelho,” “gato-azul,” Jaguarundi
Wounds
Terrestrial

        Leopardus pardalis (Linnaeus, 1758), ocelot, “gato-maracajá,”
Headache, sore throat, backache, wounds
Terrestrial

        Leopardus tigrinus (Schreber, 1775), oncilla, “gato-mirim”
Wounds, urinary incontinence, injuries, sore throat, sucking a splinter out of skin or flesh
Terrestrial

Figure 1: Number of edible vertebrates used in traditional medicines in Brazil, according to their habitat types.

Edible medicinal vertebrates were reportedly used to treat 165 health conditions/diseases (see Table 2). A single illness could be treated by various animal species (e.g., 67 animal species were used in the treatment of asthma and 60 in the treatment of rheumatism), and although most species (particularly fishes, mammals, and birds) were used to treat only one (; 41.7%) or up to five illnesses (; 76.5%), several were prescribed for treating multiple illnesses (>5 conditions; , 23.5%), as shown in Figure 2. Reptiles were the most versatile group, as they were mostly used in the treatment of multiple conditions, with almost half of the species () being used to treat more than 10 illnesses (Figure 2). Indeed, from the 10 most expressive species in the treatment of multiple conditions (see Table 1), seven are reptiles, for instance, the “teju” and the boa snake (Salvator teguixin and Boa constrictor, resp.; health conditions prescribed, each), the Neotropical rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus; conditions), the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas; conditions), and the common caiman (Caiman crocodilus; conditions). Moreover, the trahira fish (Hoplias malabaricus; prescriptions) and the two manatee species recorded (Trichechus inunguis and T. manatus; prescriptions, each) also stand out for being indicated to the treatment of multiple illnesses.

Table 2: Medicinal uses of edible fishes and game species in Brazil. Health condition categories follow the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10 Version: 2016). = total number of conditions treated in each category.

ICD 10
Indication of use and therapeutic properties

Symptoms, signs, and abnormal clinical and laboratory findings, not elsewhere classified
( species)
Ascites; chest pain; cough; cracks in the sole of the feet; edema (also quoted as edema in the legs); fatigue; fever; headache; hoarseness; inflammation; jaundice; lack of appetite (also quoted as lack of appetite in children); numbness; pain (also quoted as pain in the body; pain in the breast; pain in the legs; to reduce pain); shortness of breath; swelling; assisting children who take longer than usual to start walking; vomit.
24

Certain infectious and parasitic diseases
( species)
Abscesses; athlete’s foot; diphtheria; erysipelas; herpes zoster; infection; leishmaniosis; leprosy; mumps; mycosis; schistosomiasis; syphilis; tetanus; tuberculosis; venereal disease; verminosis; warts; whooping cough.
18

Injury, poisoning, and certain other consequences of external causes
( species)
Bruises; burns (also quoted as burns in the skin); chilblains; injuries caused by bang; injuries caused by the animal itself; injuries caused by the spines of fishes (also quoted as injuries caused by the spines of rays); intoxication from poisonous animals; pain relief in injuries caused by the species’ sting; pain relief in injuries caused by snake bites; pain relief in injuries caused by sting of insects; scratch; assisting in removing spines or other sharp structures from the skin (also quoted as to suck a splinter out of skin or flesh); wounds.
16

Diseases of the digestive system
( species)
Appendicitis; constipation; dental caries; diarrhoea; gastritis; haemorrhoids; hernia (also quoted as umbilical hernia); indigestion; irritation when milk teeth are erupting; liver pain; stomach ache; stomach disorders; toothache.
14

Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue
( species)
Arthritis; arthrosis; backache; bursitis; luxation; muscle strain; muscular pain; neck strain; osteoporosis; pain in joint; rheumatism; sprains; helping to strengthen bones.
13

Diseases of the respiratory system
( species)
Asthma; bronchitis; catarrh; coarse throat; cold; flu; lung disease; pneumonia; respiratory diseases; sinusitis; sore throat; tonsillitis.
12

Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue
( species)
Acne; blackhead; boils; calluses; dermatitis; itching; paronychia; skin diseases; skin spots; skin thorns and wounds; wrinkles.
11

Diseases of the genitourinary system
( species)
Menstrual cramps; nephritis; prostate problems; renal failure; urinary disorders; urinary incontinence; urinary infection; discharge (also quoted as vaginal discharge); womb disorders.
10

Pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium
( species)
Disorders after parturition (to accelerate recovery after parturition); haemorrhage after delivery; nausea during pregnancy; pain in gestation; helping to accelerate parturition; helping to avoid swelling of the breast feeding; helping to induce abortion; helping to prevent abortion; wound in the breast caused by suckling.
9

Diseases of the eye and adnexa
( species)
Cataracts; conjunctivitis; eye pains; ophthalmological problems (also quoted as eye problems); leucoma; pterygium; stye.
8

External causes of morbidity and mortality
( species)
Dog bite; insect sting; scorpions sting; snake bite; helping to stop the sensation of getting thirsty.
5

Undefined
( species)
Amulet; amulet used as a protection against snake bite; evil eye; helping to remove wrath.
4

Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs and certain disorders involving the immune mechanism
( species)
Anaemia; bleeding (also quoted as wounds bleeding); haemorrhage.
4

Diseases of the circulatory system
( species)
Stroke; thrombosis; varicocele.
3

Diseases of the nervous system
( species)
Epilepsy; insomnia; paralysis of arms and legs.
3

Mental and behavioural disorders
( species)
Alcoholism; sexual impotence; helping to stay awake.
3

Endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases
( species)
Diabetes, goitre; helping to control cholesterol level.
3

Neoplasms
( species)
Breast cancer; cancer (also quoted as tumour).
3

Diseases of the ear and mastoid process
( species)
Deafness; earache.
2

Certain conditions originating in the perinatal period
( species)
Healing of umbilical cord of newborn baby.
1

Figure 2: Number of health conditions treated by each taxonomic group of edible vertebrates used in traditional medicines in Brazil, according to their taxonomic group. Numbers above bars: number of animal species analysed.

Each species was prescribed to treat a mean of (mean ± confidence interval) health conditions. Reptiles contributed with the highest mean number of diseases treated per species, while birds and fishes comprised the groups with the lowest means (Kruskal-Wallis test: ; ; ; Dunn’s post hoc test: ; Figure 3). Nonetheless, species showed similar number of prescriptions according to habitat type (; ).

Figure 3: Number of health conditions treated per species, according to taxonomic group. Letters indicate the results of Dunn’s post hoc test: shared letters mean no statistical difference between groups ().

Prescriptions of edible medicinal vertebrates were generalised in 20 disease categories, according to ICD-10. From those, “symptoms, signs, and abnormal clinical and laboratory findings” were the most recorded category in terms of therapeutic quotes recorded, followed by “infectious and parasitic diseases” and “injuries, poisoning, and other consequences of external causes” (Table 2).

With regard to the number of species associated with ICD-10 categories, most animals were prescribed for treating problems associated with the “musculoskeletal system and connective tissue” and the “respiratory system” (each: species; 39.2%), “injuries, poisoning, and other consequences of external causes” (67 species, 32.8%), and “symptoms, signs, and abnormal clinical and laboratory findings” (58 species, 28.4%) (Table 2).

Despite most medicinal vertebrates provide raw materials for remedies, medicinal products often have magical-religious purposes, particularly for the prevention of diseases of spiritual cause (e.g., evil eye); they were also used as amulets to prevent diseases (e.g., amulet used as a protection against snake bite). It is worth noting that many animals involved in poisoning accidents, such as stingrays and snakes, are also used in folk medicine, particularly to treat injuries caused by themselves (see Table 1).

Fishes and birds appear to have most similar use according to ICD-10 categories (Jaccard index: 94.4), as well as reptiles and mammals (Jaccard index: 90.0), resulting in two distinct clusters (Figure 4(a)). When considering resemblance between the disease categories recorded and animals’ habitat types, two distinct clusters were also formed (terrestrial, freshwater, coastal, and marine; costal and marine/freshwater and semiaquatic) (Figure 4(b)), thus reflecting highest similarities between continental habitats (terrestrial and freshwater; Jaccard index: 90.0).

(a)

(b)

Figure 4: Dendogram showing taxonomic group (a) and habitat type (b) similarities with ICD-10 disease categories.

With regard to species conservation status, 160 animals figure in at least one of the three red lists assessed (see Table 1). In the ICUN red list, 33 species (mainly fishes and mammals) are classified into threatened categories, mostly as vulnerable (VU; ) ones. Endangered (EN) and critically endangered (CR) species comprised six fishes and reptiles, namely, Narcine bancroftii and Pristis pectinata (CR) and Sphyrna lewini, S. mokarran, Chelonia mydas, and Eretmochelys imbricata (EN). In Brazilian red lists, most threatened animals are also considered VU (); EN species () comprise mainly fishes and mammals; and CR ones () comprise mainly fishes and marine reptiles. In CITES, 58 species are listed, especially in its Appendix II (), mammals and reptiles being the most expressive groups.

4. Discussion

The high number of vertebrates used as medicine is not surprising given the important role played by wildlife as a source of medicines in different traditional medicine systems [8, 10, 23, 24]. The predominance of fishes and mammals in the Brazilian Traditional Medicine confirms our expectations, given that those groups comprise major targets in Brazil [25–28]. Although these two taxa have been primarily harvested for alimentary purposes, they generate a series of the inedible parts [such as bone, skin, tail, feather, liver, and bile (“fel”)], rattle (from rattlesnakes), spine, scale, penis, carapace, beak, teeth, head, nails, and horn that can be used in popular medicines. According to Moura and Marques [29] the use of leftover/secondary products derived from the fauna seems to be one of the most conspicuous features on the Brazilian popular zootherapy.

Zootherapeutic products, however, do not include inedible parts solely: flesh, eggs, and viscera are among some animal products used for both medicinal and alimentary purposes [1, 12, 13, 30, 31]. This corroborates the assumption that the consumption of wild vertebrates meat is often related to the purported medicinal or cultural benefits derived from the animal parts [32–35]. In a recent review study, Alves et al. [15] pointed out that at least 354 wild animal species are used in Brazilian Traditional Medicine, of which 157 are also used as food, evidencing that a close connection between eating and healing is common in Brazilian zootherapy. This is in line with several studies in ethnobiology and ethnopharmacology that have observed how difficult the clear separation between medicines and foods can be [36–38] and this situation includes plants and animals, essential items for the preparation of traditional medicine.

Whether for food or medicinal purposes, the consumption of wild animals can lead to the transmission of various human diseases [39]. Van Vliet et al. [40] highlighted that the consumption of bushmeat for either purpose may lead to human infection by several zoonotic pathogens. Armadillos, for example, are widely used in folk medicine and are a natural reservoir of etiological agents of several zoonotic diseases that affect humans, such as leprosy, trichinosis, coccidioidomycosis or Valley Fever, Chagas disease, and typhus [41]. Therefore, it is essential that traditional drug therapies are submitted to an appropriate benefit/risk analysis [39].

It was found that several medicinal vertebrates used in the Brazilian Traditional Medicine have multiple therapeutic indications. The possibility of using various remedies for the same ailment is popular because it allows adapting to the availability of the animals. The fact that some medicinal animals are being used for the same purpose suggests that different species can share similar medicinal properties and might indicate the pharmacological effectiveness of those zootherapeutic remedies [8].

Multiple medicinal uses become even more evident when considering reptiles, as this group comprises one of the most important animal resources related to the medicine history [42] and is widely used in the most important traditional pharmacopeias worldwide [35]. Indeed, the use in traditional medicines is the human practice that involves the highest diversity of reptile species in Brazil [17], some of which play important roles in traditional medicines, such as the “teju” (Tupinambis teguixin) and the boa snake (Boa constrictor), which are one of the most used medicinal animals in Brazil [42, 43]. Curiously, there is a general aversion to consuming some reptile groups, such as snakes and lizards, in the country. Nonetheless, this fact does not impair the use of these animals as medicines, as it is mainly associated with popular beliefs known as “simpatias,” which, in most of the cases, state that “a person receiving a given treatment cannot know what that he/she is taking, otherwise the effect ceases” [18]. Hence, this fact seems to favour the high use of reptile species, despite widespread aversion to those animals.

On the other hand, despite presenting the highest diversity of medicinal species, fishes were recommended to treat a comparatively low number of health conditions. This may be related to the fact that most parts of a fish are consumed as food; thus fewer products are left to be used in medicinal practices. Similarly, when considering major hunted taxa in Brazil, that is, mammals and birds [25, 26, 44], most species are also mostly consumed as food. However, the inedible parts generate “leftovers” (e.g., skin, tail, spine, scale, teeth, nails, and horn) which are among the main products used in traditional medicine. Indeed, according to Moura and Marques [29], the zootherapeutic use of the fauna is mainly based on derived leftovers/secondary products. Those authors also emphasise that, from the ecological theory point of view, the use of leftovers could be justified as an attempt to leverage the resources obtained from ecosystems which are inappropriate for alimentary consumption due to the mechanical difficulty of ingesting these parts, such as horns, feather, and scales. Therefore, one can expect that the diversity of leftovers provided by a species may support the potential to treat multiple diseases.

Animals from continental habitats (i.e., terrestrial and freshwater) were found to treat similar disease categories; the same could be found within coastal and marine animals. This may be related to the local distribution of the diseases treated, thus leading people to use local resources in the traditional medicine of each region. For instance, in coastal areas, the occurrence of diseases classified into the category “external causes of morbidity and mortality” is very common, due to sting/poisoning accidents caused by fishes (e.g., stingrays, catfish, and toadfish), which are often treated by zootherapeutic products derived from the animals that caused the lesions [45–48].

Natural resources play an essential role in health care in traditional medical systems, as well as in bioprospecting for new drugs [49, 50], and the interest in animal-based products has raised [49, 51, 52]. Hence, despite the available information on the chemical components and actions of some of these products, studies on fauna traditional uses still are potentially very important to shed light on several aspects of their therapeutic applications [53].

The comprehension of the multiplicity and trends in therapeutic uses of several vertebrate species is of particular interest from a conservation perspective, as threatened animals, such as those recorded in this and other studies [30] could be replaced by nonthreatened species with similar properties. However, it is important to highlight that the use of animals for both food and medicinal purposes may impose higher pressure on those species under overexploitation conditions. For instance, if the animal is solely sought for medicinal purposes, it can lead the hunter/fisher to use selective capture techniques or even release nontargeted species. On the other hand, if an animal is captured for feeding reasons and is not the main target of the hunting or fishery (e.g., due to size), it can be kept by the hunter/fisher due to some medicinal property. Hence, understanding such complex interactions and trends in the use of fauna for nutritional and medicinal purposes evidences the important role that ethnobiological and ethnopharmacological studies may play in crucial discussion on the trade-offs between animal harvesting and its sustainability towards better regulation of those practices.

5. Conclusion

Wild edible vertebrates, particularly those inhabiting aquatic environments, are used to treat a wide range of health conditions in Brazil, with reptiles consisting of the most versatile group in multiple disease prescriptions. Moreover, a trend in prescriptions was found according to animals’ habitats, as disease categories were similar within continental and within coastal and marine habitats. Several consumed species are under threat, leading to a raise in conservation concerns, particularly due to the dual function (as food and medicines) those species present.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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