An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants (MPs) used by the local community has been carried out from January 5, 2014, to February 15, 2015, in Gozamin Wereda of East Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia. The purpose of this study was to identify and document the use and conservation of MPs, along with indigenous knowledge of Gozamin community. Data were collected using semistructured interview, field observation, and focus group discussions. The collected data were assessed quantitatively using fidelity level, Jaccard’s Coefficient of Similarity, paired comparisons, direct matrix, and preference rankings. In total 93 MPs distributed under 51 families and 87 genera were identified and for each taxon a local name (Amharic) was documented. Asteraceae with 9 (9.68%) species and Solanaceae with 7 (7.53%) species were families represented by more species in the study area. Out of these MPs collected, 80 plant species were used for the treatment of human ailments, 24 species were used against livestock diseases, and 11 common plant species were listed in both cases. The most frequently used plant parts were the leaves followed by the roots. The major threats to MPs in the study area were agricultural expansion, overgrazing, fire wood collection, mining, and cutting down trees for construction and furniture. Therefore, there is a need for appropriate in situ and ex situ conservation measures.
Findings indicated that Ethiopia is one of the top 25 biodiversity-rich countries in the world and hosts two of the world’s 34 biodiversity hotspots, namely, the Eastern Afromontane and the Horn of Africa hotspots [
Ethiopia has diverse medicinal flora distributed in different vegetation types. About 1,000 medicinal plants (MPs) have been identified and documented [
The use of traditional medicine is still widespread in Ethiopia, as well as its acceptability, availability, and popularity no doubt since about 90% of the populations use it for healthcare needs [
In spite of the vast role of ethnobotanical contributions of MPs in the primary healthcare, limited works have so far been done in the country so as to document and enhance associated indigenous knowledge (IK) [
Like all other parts of the country majority of the people of the study Wereda used herbal medicines for a long time to treat human and livestock ailments. Still now the dependence on this medicine is continuing because of its acceptability, accessibility, and affordability. The present study aimed at identification and documentation of MPs and associated knowledge of using, managing, and conserving MPs by the community of Gozamin Wereda which also becomes useful in the introduction of alternative resource management like in situ conservation systems that involve local people which is an urgent task for the study area where its natural vegetation is lost rapidly.
The study also aspires to identify and record the use of medicinal plant species for purposes other than their medicine. Besides, scanty attempts have been made to identify factors associated with their collection, threats, utilization, and use of the plants for the communities. Thus, the research fills this gap by documenting the wealth of indigenous knowledge and understanding the corresponding drivers of this knowledge related to management and conservation of medicinal plants used to treat human and livestock ailments in study area.
Gozamin Wereda is one of the 18 Weredas in East Gojjam Zone and 151 Weredas in Amhara National Regional State [
The total population of the Wereda has an estimated size of 173,300 of which 87,178 are males and 86,122 are females: the highest population (80,294) is in the age range of 0–14 whereas the lowest one is above the age of 60 which accounted for 7,837 in number [
The topography of the Wereda is characterized by the three major agroclimatic zones within altitude range of 500–3500 meters above sea level: temperate (Dega) (35.55%), subtropical (Woina Dega) (41.41%), and tropical (Kolla) (15.72%). The Wereda relief in percentage is given as plateau 45%, mountain 48%, and valley 7%. With respect to soil type, the majority of the Wereda soil belongs to vertisol and lithosol [
The vegetation type of Gozamin could be Dry Evergreen Afromontane Forest. According to Friis et al. [
There is also an Afroalpine belt as long as the Wereda includes a particular subdistrict (Kebele) known as Gedellamma which is in the Choke mountain system. It is clearly indicated that mountains are virtually devoid of vegetation and the only few woody plant species observed are moorland types sparsely covered with Giant Lobelia
The rainfall pattern is unimodal, stretching from May to September. The highest monthly rainfalls were record in July, 284.67 mm, and August, 298.03 mm, and the lowest ones were observed in January (14.52 mm) and February (10.6 mm). The mean annual rain fall distribution is 1342 mm. The mean annual maximum and minimum temperature records of the study site were 26°C and 8.6°C, respectively. Rainy months are blackened and dry months are dotted as indicated in Figure
The most important animal diseases in Gozamin Wereda include bacterial infections (black leg, pasteurellosis, anthrax, mastitis, fowl typhoid, and avian salmonellosis), endoparasites (fascioliasis, paramphistomiasis, and strongyloidiasis), ectoparasites (ticks, mites, lice, and insect flies), viral infections (rabies, African horse sickness, and foot and mouth diseases), and protozoal infections (trypanosomiasis, babesiasis, and coccidiosis) [
Reconnaissance survey was conducted from September 23 to 30, 2013, in the study Wereda in order to obtain an impression about medicinal plants, topography, distribution of plants, and identification of sampling sites. During the survey 12 representative Kebeles (subdistricts) were selected. Local administrators were chosen as key resource persons in providing information in their respective Kebeles. During the survey, general information about the Wereda was also obtained.
Purposively twelve Kebeles were selected out of 26 Kebeles of the Wereda for ethnobotanical data collection based on the availability of traditional medicinal practitioners present, identified with the assistance of the Kebele administration leaders, elders, religious leaders, and others who have information about traditional healers. Those Kebeles which have almost the same agroclimatic conditions as other neighboring Kebeles were not included in the study and this is also additional factor for site selection. The study Kebeles were Libanos, Chimbord Yezangera, Cher Tekel, Denba, Asab Abo, Enerata, Lekilekita, Wenka, Chimit, Yegagina, Yebokila Zurya, and Yetijan-Shebelmma (Figure
Map of Ethiopia showing location of the study area.
Climadiagrams of the study area from 2005 to 2014 at Debre Markos Station (data source: National Meteorological Agency).
A total of 100 informants (88 males and 12 females) were selected from the representative Kebeles. Representative common informants and knowledgeable traditional medicine practitioners (key informants) of Gozamin Wereda were selected using random and purposive sampling approaches, respectively, following Martin [
Out of 100 informants, 80 general informants were sampled during random visits in the study Kebeles by asking every individual in the house or working fields or wherever they were. On the other hand, the remaining 20 key informants out of the total were selected purposively and systematically. In other words, this was based on comments and recommendations from the religious leaders, elders, Kebele administrators
Ethnobotanical data were obtained from both primary and secondary sources. The primary sources were interview, focus group discussion, and observation in the field of the study area, where as the secondary data sources were various and relevant literature review related to the present study. A piece of other information was also collected from the Wereda of different offices.
The study has been carried out by interviewing the knowledgeable informants in different villages under various sites from January 5, 2014, to February 15, 2015, in Gozamin Wereda, East Gojjam Zone of Amhara Region Ethiopia. Ethnobotanical techniques were employed to collect data on knowledge and management of traditional MPs used by the local people in the study area. The methods used for ethnobotanical data collection were semistructured interviews following Martin [
A list of questions was prepared that was covered in discussion with the informants in a particular order. The interview was guided to cover the key topics on the checklist while leaving room to pursue any relevant subject brought up by the interviewee. All of the interviews were held in Amharic, the language of the local people by the researcher. The place and the time for discussion were set based on the interest of the informants. The status of all the MPs was recorded as abundant, less abundant, rare, or very rare as per healer perception during the semistructured interviews.
Field observations were carried out with local people, guidance, interviewed informants, and students
Short, brief, and precise group discussions were made with informants regarding the MPs in the study sites. Information on local names of the plants, their medicinal uses, methods of preparation, mode of administration, disease conditions, IK on MPs, and threats to plants, conservation and management of plants, and related data were recorded.
Plants used for herbal remedies were collected by a team comprising a botanist, biotechnologist, microbiologist, chemist, and parasitologist from Debre Markos University (DMU). The voucher specimens were collected at the spot during guided field walk, numbered, pressed, dried, and deep frozen for identification. Determination of specimens was carried out both in the field and in the herbarium. Then after that, nomenclature was determined using Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea, other available taxonomic literatures, and visual comparison with authenticated herbarium specimens. Finally, the voucher specimens were kept at Debre Markos University Mini-Herbarium to aid confirmation of plant identity.
The information gathered included vernacular name of plant, species, ailments they cure, part used, route of administration, method of preparation, dose, and duration levels of herbal administration. Therefore, this is the starting point of documenting the flora of Gojjam in general and Gozamin Wereda of East Gojjam Zone in particular.
Preference ranking was included in predesigned semistructured interview items. It was conducted following Martin [
Direct matrix ranking was conducted following Cotton [
After having identified five most important MPs based on their medicinal values as perceived by the informants, the paired comparisons were employed following Martin [
This can be used to determine the similarity in species composition of the study area with other study areas done by other researchers. Jaccard’s Coefficient of Similarity (JCS) was used so as to assess plant species composition similarity, among seven different Weredas. It was computed between the present study area and other areas, which were studied by other authors in different parts of the country. JCS was calculated following Kent and Coker [
Because many plant species may be used in the same use category, we needed to determine the most preferred species used for the treatment of a particular ailment, and we did so by calculating fidelity levels (FL) [
A total of 100 herbalists from the study sites were interviewed and as a result ninety-three (93) plant species belonging to 51 plant families and 87 genera were identified for the management of both human and livestock ailments (Figure
Age range of informant.
The informants were local residents aged between 18–73 years (Figure
Regarding sex, 88 (88%) of the total informants were males whereas the remaining 12 (12%) were reported as females (Table
Sociodemography of the informants.
Informants | Categories | Number | % |
---|---|---|---|
Sex | Male | 88 | 88.00 |
Female | 12 | 12.00 | |
Total | 100 | 100 | |
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Marital status | |||
Married | Male | 56 | 56.00 |
Female | 10 | 10.00 | |
Total | 66 | 66.00 | |
Unmarried | Male | 28 | 28.00 |
Female | 2 | 02.00 | |
Total | 30 | 30.00 | |
Divorced | Male | 3 | 03.00 |
Female | 1 | 01.00 | |
Total | 4 | 04.00 | |
Grand total | 100 | 100 | |
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Educational level | |||
Modern education | 64 | 64.00 | |
Church education | 17 | 17.00 | |
Uneducated/illiterate | 19 | 19.00 | |
Total | 100 | 100 |
The educational status of the informants showed that most of them were literate, that is, having modern education (diploma holders, students, and those able to read and write) accounting for 64 (64%) followed by the uneducated ones but traditionally knowledgeable informants accounted for 19 (19%) and the least number of respondents was reported as church education attendants, 17 (17%) (Table
The most important way of transfer of IK on types of use of MPs, mode of preparations, way of administration, traditional idea of illnesses, and methods of diagnosis and treatment among indigenous herbal practitioners of Gozamin community was by word of mouth to a family member. The finding further indicated that the present knowledge transfer system followed the inheritance based transfer system where most traditional healers pass their knowledge to the elder/eldest/son/daughter. The selection of the elect was based upon his/her good conduct and ability to keep the secret with regard to the ethnobotanical plant use knowledge. The knowledge transfer system is bounded by traditional rules and can only happen through cultural ceremony. Most of the healers confirmed that, during transfer of the knowledge, they also received obligation. Similarly it was also reported that, at family level, it is restricted to the elders (men and women), followed by elder son or daughter or their trustworthy person when the mother or the father is getting old or near to die [
In the current study, ninety-three medicinal plant species distributed across 51 families and 87 genera were collected and documented from the study site (Tables
List of medicinal plants used for treating human ailments in the study area with scientific name, family, local name, habit (Ha), shrub (S), tree (T), herb (H), climber (Cl), seed (Se), fruit (Fr), flower (Fl), shoot (Sh), collection number (Coll. No.) source, condition of preparation (fresh/F and dry/D), parts used (PU), root (R), leaf (L), latex (La), stem (St), bulb (Bu), bark (Ba), and rhizome (Rh).
Scientific name, family | Local name | Ha | Disease treated | PU | Preparations, conditions of plants used, and mode of applications | Route | Voucher number |
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| Telenj | H | Hemorrhoids | R | Fresh roots pounded and applied on the infected part. | Anal | NA10 |
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| Yemidir berbere | H | Tonsillitis | Fl | Fluid extract from the leaf is drunk (one spoon). | Oral | NA2 |
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| Shinkurt | H | Cough | Bu | Its bulb and fruit of | Oral | NA7 |
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| Ret | H | Stomachache | La | The latex of the species is squeezed and taken once. | Oral | NA20 |
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| Amoch | H | Birth difficulty | R | Fingertip size fresh root is squished and mixed with alcohol (local arki), and then one cup is drunk. | Oral | NA80 |
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| Chiqugn | H | Evil eye | L | Fresh leaf and | Nasal | NA75 |
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| Yeset qest | S | Impotency | R | The root powder along with | Oral | NA9 |
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| Gomen | H | Skin rash | Se | The powder is mixed with water and applied on the skin. | Dermal | NA60 |
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| Sinafich | H | Abdominal pain | Se | Powder of dried seeds with seeds | Oral | NA45 |
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| Avalo | T | Bloody diarrhea | R/L | Dry root is crushed and dissolved in water or the leaf is squeezed and 1/2 of coffee cup is drunk. | Oral | NA1 |
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| Anfar | S | Wound | L | Dried leaf finely crushed and mixed with | Dermal | NA22 |
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| Ligita | S | Hepatitis | L | The leaves are boiled with a cup of water and then drunk for 6–10 days. | Dermal/oral | NA90 |
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| Gumero | S | Evil sprit | R | Dry root crushed and boiled with water and then fumigated or inhaled. | Nasal/oral | NA6 |
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| Qaria | H | Dysentery, vomiting | Fr | Its fruits with | Oral | NA28 |
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| Kosheshila | H | Fibril illness | R | The root is pounded, squeezed, and drunk. | Oral | NA30 |
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| Papya | Cl | Gastritis | Se | The seed can be eaten together with the fleshy part. | Oral | NA17 |
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| Agam | S | Evil eye | R | Dried root bark powder is added on fire and allowed to be inhaled. | Nasal/oral | NA51 |
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| Fiyele-fej | S | Dysentery | St | Crush fresh stem making it powder and then drink. | Oral | NA59 |
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| Bunna | S | Wound | Se | Seeds roasted, powdered, and put on the infected skin. | Dermal | NA3 |
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| Wanza | T | Vomiting | Fl | Flowers crushed or smashed and swallowed. | Oral | NA4 |
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| Bisana | T | Stomachache | L | Squeezing the fresh leaf and drinking the droplet. | Oral | NA12 |
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Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich (Cucurbitaceae) | Yemidir Embuy | Cl | Cough | R | Fresh roots are washed, smashed, and mixed with water overnight. Then, mix the suspensions with honey and milk and drink one glass. | Oral | NA46 |
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| Shimgug | H | Stomachache | R | The root is washed and cleaned, and then the liquid is chewed and taken. | Oral | NA56 |
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| Kitkita | S | Sore/eczema | L | Dry leaves along the leaves of | Dermal | NA63 |
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| Astenagir | H | Dandruff | L | Fresh leaves pounded and smashed with hand and then applied on the head like ointment. | Dermal | NA61 |
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| Merqo | T | Emergency (“dingetegna”) | R | The root is crushed and mixed with water; one cup is given to drink. | Oral | NA67 |
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| Qebercho | H | Scabies | R | The root is powdered and applied on the affected area at bedtime. | Dermal | NA69 |
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| Enqoqo | S | Tapeworm | Fr | Dried fruit is powered and dissolved by water and then one glass water is drunk. | Oral | NA73 |
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| Dawa tef | H | Bone fracture | Se | Flour of teff is mixed with different spices and then eaten continuously. | Oral | NA83 |
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| Asta | S | Circumcision | L | Fresh leaf is mixed with leaves of | Dermal | NA5 |
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| Korch | T | Eczema | L/ba/R | The powders of dried leaf, bark, and root are mixed with cheese and then applied. | Dermal | NA25 |
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| Nech bahir zaf | T | Asthma | L | The young leaf is boiled with water and the steam is inhaled. | Nasal/oral | NA87 |
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| Qulqual | T | Jaundice, rabies | Sap | Few droplets of the milky latex are mixed with the powder of wheat and teff and then baked and eaten. | Oral | NA91 |
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| Sholla | T | Dysentery | La | About one spoon of sap is taken. | Oral | NA55 |
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| Ensilal | H | Abdominal pain | Se | The leaves boiled with tea or coffee and then drunk. | Oral | NA35 |
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| Kosso | T | Tapeworm | Se | Dry seed ground into powder, mixed with local alcohol (“tella”), and drunk. | Oral | NA37 |
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| Gebis | H | Gastritis | Se | The roasted powder is boiled in water and drunk until relief. | Oral | NA39 |
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| Jatrofa | T | Wound | La | The latex is applied on the wound. | Dermal | NA78 |
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| Tenbelel | Cl | Tapeworm | L | Fresh leaves crushed, squeezed mixed with water, and decanted and then drunk without having food. | Oral | NA14 |
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| Smiza | S | Wound | L | The fresh leaf paste is applied over infected area of skin. | Dermal | NA15 |
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| Andahula | H | Swelling | L/St | Fresh leaves or stem heated with fire and put on the swollen part. | Dermal | NA53 |
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| Gimmie | H | Common cold | L | Leaf is inhaled for sometimes through nose. | Nostril | NA8 |
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| Feres zeng | H | Diarrhea | Fr/L | Powder of dried fruit and leaf is mixed with honey and then given. | Oral | NA23 |
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| Telba | H | Gastritis | Se | Few seeds immersed in water over night and one glass drunk continuously. | Oral | NA24 |
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| Feto | H | Diarrhea | Se | Seeds ground into paste-like food and then eaten or mixed with butter and water and drunk. | Oral | NA74 |
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| Kesiy | H | Gastritis | L | Fresh leaves chewed. | Oral | NA26 |
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| Jebera | T | Evil sprit | R | The dried root fumigated. | Nasal/oral | NA40 |
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| Gibto | H | Hypertension | Se | Soaking with water for 3–5 days, decanting the water, and eating and/or preparing in the form of alcohol and drunk. | Oral | NA72 |
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| Atat | H | Itching | R | Dry root is boiled in water and body is washed with it | Dermal | NA76 |
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| Birbira | T | Skin infection | Fr | Dry fruit powder is mixed with butter and salt and then applied to the infected skin. | Dermal | NA77 |
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| Yamora misa | Cl | Toothache | L | Fresh leaf is chewed for sometimes and spit out. | Oral | NA33 |
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| Shinet | T | Leishmaniasis | Ba | The powder is mixed with butter and applied on the contaminated part. | Dermal | NA32 |
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| Ades | S | Ringworm | L | Leaf powder is mixed with butter and is being applied on the infected part continuously. | Dermal | NA31 |
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| Tiqur-azmud | H | Common cold | Se | The seeds ground into powder and covered with a piece of cloth and inhaled three to four times per day. | Nasal | NA34 |
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| Ziqaqibie | H | Dysentery | L | Leaf is pounded, mixed with water, and drunk. | Oral | NA49 |
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| Dama kesy | H | Sun-strike | L | From three places the leaves are cut and crushed, squeezed, and drunk. | Oral | NA48 |
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| Woira | T | Toothache | St | Dry/fresh branches used as tooth brush. | Oral | NA68 |
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| Tinjut | S | Abdominal pain | L | Pounding and squeezing the fresh leaf and mixing with water then drinking. | Oral | NA47 |
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| Endod | S | Abortion | L | The leaf is crushed, mixed with water, filtered, and drunk. | Oral | NA11 |
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| Gorteb | H | Cut | L | Crush and apply it on the cut part. | Dermal | NA13 |
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| Amera | H | Wounds | R | Dried root finely crushed and applied or rubbed on wounds. | Dermal | NA18 |
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| Zigba | T | Swelling | L | Fresh leaf is crushed and tied with a piece of cloth on the contaminated skin. | Dermal | NA19 |
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| Homma | T | Wound | Ba | Powdered and tied for 5–7 days. | Dermal | NA16 |
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| Etsesiol | H | Eczema | L | Crushing and tying the infected part with a piece of cloth for two hours. | Dermal | NA29 |
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| Gesho | S | Tonsillitis | Fr | The dry fruit of the plant is made as powder and mixed with water and then drunk. | Oral | NA27 |
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| Tult | H | Blood pressure | R | About the size of fingertip of root is chewed and the juice is taken daily. | Oral | NA38 |
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| Enbuacho | S | Burn | St | The powder of roasted stem is mixed with butter and applied on the skin. | Dermal | NA43 |
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| Tila-adam | H | Common cold | St and L | Fresh stem and leaf are boiled with coffee or tea then drunk. | Oral | NA42 |
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| Chifrg | S | Dysentery | L | The dried leaf is ground and mixed in a cup of water. Drink two spoon solutions after shaking. | Oral | NA50 |
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| Zercho enbuay | S | Eczema | Fr | The fruits along with | Dermal | NA41 |
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| Enbuay | S | Toothache | Fr | The fruit sap is applied on affected tooth drop by drop. | Oral | NA44 |
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| Awit | H | Itching | Fr | Watery/fluid of the fruit is applied on the skin part. | Dermal | NA85 |
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| Yayit jero | Cl | To increase mental activity | R | Dry smashed root is mixed with “Abish” and then drunk with one cup of coffee. | Oral | NA86 |
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| Samma | H | Gastritis | L | Prepare in the form of stew and eat with bread (“Injera”) | Oral | NA88 |
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| Qetentina | H | Gastritis | R | Juice is extracted from fresh root and then drunk. | Oral | NA70 |
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| Atuch | H | Abdominal pain, diarrhea, stomachache | R | Sap of the fresh root is chewed and swallowed for three days. | Oral | NA71 |
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| Girawa | S | Stomachache | L | Fresh leaf is mixed with water, crushed, and squeezed, decanted, and drunk. | Oral | NA92 |
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| Gizewa | S | Fibril illness | L | Its leaf is crushed along with | Dermal | NA93 |
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| Harg ressa | Cl | Sun-strike | L | It is crushed, mixed with water, and decanted, and then one cup is drunk or the stem is boiled and inhaled. | Oral | NA64 |
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| Zinjible | H | Stomachache | Rh | Chewing and eating. | Oral | NA66 |
List of medicinal plants used for treating livestock diseases in the study area, with scientific name, family, local name, habit (Ha), shrub (S), tree (T), herb (H), climber (Cl), seed (Se), fruit (Fr), flower (Fl), shoot (Sh), collection number (Coll. No.), source, condition of preparation (fresh/F and dry/D), parts used (PU), root (R), leaf (L), stem (St), bark (Ba), and rhizome (Rh).
Scientific name, family | Local name | Ha | Disease treated | PU | Preparations, conditions of plants used, and mode of applications | Route | Voucher number |
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| Telenj | H | Eye infection | R | Fresh root is crushed and mixed with water and then dropped into the cattle’s eye. | Eye | NA10 |
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| Gumero | S | Evil sprit | R | Fumigation of dried root. | Nasal/oral | NA6 |
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| Limich | S | Coccidiosis | L | The leaves are squashed and extracted by water then the juice is given to chicken pox one or two spoon with bread. | Oral | NA81 |
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| Tejesar | H | Anthrax/unspecified disease | R | Dried root powder is mixed with fresh water and then given to cattle. | Oral | NA82 |
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| Merqo | T | Evil sprit | Ba | The juice is extracted from inner part of the bark and mixed with water and then given to animals for 2-3 days. | Oral | NA67 |
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| Enqoqo | S | Unspecified disease | L | Its fresh leaves along with the leaves of | Oral | NA73 |
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| Dedeho | S | Wound | L | Leaf powder is applied topically on the wounds of livestock. | Dermal | NA79 |
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| Qulqual | T | Rabies | R | The root crushed and mixed with food and then given to dog. | Oral | NA91 |
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| Lenquata | S | Placenta retention | L | Leaves pounded, mixed with water, and then given to cattle to drink. | Oral | NA21 |
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| Nug | H | Leech | Se | The seed is pounded and boiled with water then after cooling applied through nasal cavity to expel the parasite one cup. | Nasal | NA84 |
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| Woynagift | S | Infected eye | L | Fresh leaves crushed, squeezed, and dropped into eye. | Eye | NA89 |
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| Smiza | S | Coccidiosis | L | The leaves are squashed and extracted with water, then one or two spoons of juice are given to chicken. | Oral | NA15 |
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| Qil | Cl | Leech | Fr | Fresh fruit sap is given to cattle. | Nasal | NA54 |
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| Nim | T | Insect repellent | L | Leaves and juice sprayed in the house (on infected cattle skin). | Dermal | NA52 |
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| Tinbaho | S | Leech | L | Leaves crushed, squeezed, and dropped into the cattle’s nostril. | Nasal | NA62 |
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| Tunjit | S | Leech | L | Leaf juice is squashed and applied through nasal cavity to expel the parasite. | Nasal | NA47 |
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| Kok | S | Diarrhea | L | Crushed and immersed in water for few minutes and then given to calf. | Oral | NA16 |
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| Gesho | S | Leech | L | Leaf juice is pounded with water and applied through nasal cavity to expel the parasite | Nasal | NA27 |
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| H | Cough | Wh | Whole plant concoction is drunk (given to cattle). | Oral | NA65 | |
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| Yahiya Jero | H | Coccidiosis | L | Fresh leaf is mixed with | Oral | NA58 |
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| Yeshikoko gomen | S | Dysentery | L | The whole leaf is given to cattle. | Oral | NA57 |
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| Enbuay | S | Leech | Fr | The fruits’ sap is dropped into nostril. | Nasal | NA44 |
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| Qetentina | H | Rabies | L | Juice squashed from fresh leaf and then given to the dog with milk and food. | Oral | NA70 |
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| Zinjibl | H | Stomachache | R | Fresh rhizome crushed is mixed with salt and then dissolved by water and one cup is given. | Oral | NA66 |
The ethnobotanical study of MPs in Gozamin Wereda showed that plant medicines are used by a large amount of the population and it is the most important means of treating some common human and livestock ailments such as wound, stomachache, dysentery, diarrhea, gastritis, eczema, eye disease, snakebite, malaria, tapeworm, toothache, evil eye, cough, hemorrhoids, febrile illness, anthrax, control of leech, external animal parasites, tonsillitis, and fever especially for those community members who cannot buy the modern medicines with a relatively higher price.
Most medicinal plants were collected in their natural habitat which account for 42 (45%) whereas 28 (30%) medicinal plants were from home-garden and 23 (25%) were from both home-garden and the wild (Figure
Diversity of medicinal plants in natural habitat and home-garden.
Every part of different plant species is used against a variety of ailments. As per the informant’s response, the most commonly used part is the leaf (39), followed by root (16), seed (13), fruit, latex, leaf/or fruit, and stem (4, each) (Figure
Plant parts used by Gozamin’s community.
It was reported that the ease of accessibility to leaves explains their frequent inclusion in most of the preparations [
On the other hand, the results of the study showed that harvesting of roots has great impact on the plants and leads to the dearth of the MPs. Fortunately, the plant parts which are mostly used for the preparation of the remedies in the study area were leaves and harvesting of leaves has less impact on the plant than harvesting of roots.
Diseases can be categorized in different ways as dermatological, respiratory, gastrointestinal, and so on. Based on the information obtained in the study site, the most prevalent diseases are related to skin (dermatology) and gastrointestinal ones (31%, each) followed by livestock (19%) and other diseases (15%) (Figure
Categories of disease.
The health problems could be as inverse as the MPs and associated ecological zones. For example, Tolasa [
In this study different families of MPs were recorded. Among them Asteraceae is the most dominant family that holds 9 (9.68%) plant species followed by Solanaceae having 7 (7.53%) species. Other taxa commonly used are Cucurbitaceae and Lamiaceae (each 5 spp.), Euphorbiaceae and Fabaceae (each 4 spp.), Brassicaceae, Poaceae, and Rosaceae (each 3). The remaining forty-two (42) families hold fifty plant species. Eight of them account for two species. The rest of the families signify one species (Figure
Families represented by highest number of medicinal plant species.
The finding shows that the most widely used MPs habits in the different Kebeles of the study areas were herbs, 42 (45%), followed by shrubs 29 (31%). Trees and climbers account for 15 (16%) and 7 (8%), respectively (see Figure
Habits of medicinal plants.
The popular method of preparation of traditional medicine is crushing and squeezing accounting for 54 (45%) followed by powdering (powder form), 22 (18%). It was also recorded that 13 (11%) were prepared in juice form, 9 (8%) in boiling form, 8 (7%) in chewing form, and 4 (3%) in the form of fumigation and immersion (each). Other methods such as paste form, raw form, and the like accounted for 6 (5%) (Figure
Ways of preparation of traditional medicine in the study area.
Based on the informants’ information the most popular method of preparation of remedy in the study area was crushing. This finding is in line with the results of Yineger and Yewhalaw [
The result in the conditions of plant part used indicated that most medicines (about 61%) of traditional MPs were prepared from fresh plant materials in the study site whereas 30% and 9% of medicinal plants were reported to be used dry and in both dry or fresh form, respectively (Figure
Conditions of preparations of traditional medicine in the study area.
This finding is also consistent with the finding of [
Respondents argued that they use fresh plant parts mostly because they believe that using fresh materials increases efficacy as compared to the dry ones. This is because of the fact that the ingredients may be lost or reduced when the plants became dry. Nevertheless, this contributes much a lot to the threats of MPs given that local people have no practice of preserving dry form of traditional medicine.
On the other hand, the most common route of administration is internal particularly oral that accounted for 51.61% followed by dermal, 24.73%. The oral/dermal, nasal, and nasal/oral ones and others are indicated in Figure
Route of administrations.
Dosages were estimated using lid spoons, pinches, or handfuls (“woket”) (for powder preparations), cups (“sini” or “finjal”), “tassa” (can), and glasses (birchiko) (for liquid mixtures to be administered), numbers or in some cases handfuls (for leaf, seed, and fruits), and “atik” (for roots, stems, or barks). The measurements used to determine the dosages are not standardized and depend on the age, physical appearance of the patient, degree of the illness, diagnosis, and experience of individual herbalists/knowledgeable person. Children are given less than adults, such as one-fourth of a coffee cup whereas an adult is given up to one glass depending on the type of illness and treatment. Getahun [
If a number of species are prescribed for the same ailment, people would tend to show preference of one over the other. Thus, preference ranking of six MPs which were reported against leach (livestock disease) was conducted after selecting six key informants. The informants were asked to compare the given MPs based on their efficacy and to give the highest number (5) for the medicinal plant which they thought most effective against leech and the lowest number (1) for the least effective plant in treating the disease. The results showed that
Preference ranking of six medicinal plants against leech in livestock (cited by six respondents).
Medicinal plants | Respondents ( | Total | Rank | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | | | | | |||
| 3 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 12 | 6th |
| 3 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 14 | 5th |
| 1 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 16 | 4th |
| 4 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 23 | 2nd |
| 4 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 23 | 3rd |
| 4 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 25 | 1st |
Result of the preference ranking exercise also indicated that
In this study, seven key informants made the pairwise comparisons of five MPs and the values were summarized as follows. It was found that
Paired comparison of five medicinal plants used to treat toothache.
Medicinal plants | Respondents ( | Total | Rank | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | | | | | | |||
| 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 3 | 27 | 1st |
| 3 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 23 | 2nd |
| 2 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 19 | 3rd |
| 3 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 17 | 4th |
| 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 16 | 5th |
Many MPs were found to be used for different purposes in addition to their medicinal values. The major uses include firewood, furniture, forage, charcoal, and eating. For ranking seven key informants were asked to give value, 5 to the most used plant for that particular purpose and 0 to the least used one. In view of that,
Direct matrix ranking for the multipurpose of six medicinal plants [average score of 7 key informants (5 to the most used plant for that particular purpose and 0 to the least used one)].
Medicinal plants | Use categories | Total | Rank | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Medicine | Firewood | Furniture | Forage | Soil con. | Edible | |||
| 24 | 20 | 24 | 5 | 10 | 10 | 93 | 1st |
| 27 | 17 | 5 | 10 | 12 | 16 | 87 | 2nd |
| 20 | 21 | 20 | 5 | 8 | 8 | 82 | 3rd |
| 20 | 22 | 14 | 5 | 9 | 5 | 75 | 4th |
| 30 | 20 | 15 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 73 | 5th |
| 29 | 19 | 18 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 72 | 6th |
Direct matrix of randomly selected MPs with different uses including medicinal value on given use criteria revealed that MPs broadly collected for different purposes such as charcoal, construction, fencing, firewood, forage, furniture, and the like were also indicated [
Jaccard’s Coefficient of Similarity (JCS) revealed that the study area has the highest similarity with 45 common species (34.66%) to the study conducted around Wonago Wereda, followed by 40 common species (28%) with Debre Libanos Wereda, followed by 39 common species (21.91) with Chelya Wereda, followed by 30 common species (17.65) having similarity to Gimbi Wereda, followed by 23 common species (17.16%) having similarity to Zegie. The least similarity was linked with the study conducted on Bale Mountain National Park (Table
Jaccard’s Coefficient of Similarity index with six other areas with respect to plants species composition.
Sample of study areas | A | B | C | JCS% | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gozamin Wereda | 93 | - | - | - | Present |
Bale Mountain National Park | 101 | 86 | 15 | 7.42 | Yineger et al. 2008 |
Chelya District | 89 | 50 | 39 | 21.91 | Amenu, 2007 |
Debre Libanos District | 90 | 50 | 40 | 22.22 | Getaneh, 2009 |
Gimbi District | 85 | 55 | 30 | 17.65 | Tolasa, 2007 |
Wonago District | 65 | 20 | 45 | 34.66 | Mesfin et al. 2009 |
Zegie Peninsula | 67 | 44 | 23 | 17.16 | Teklehaymanot and Giday, 2007 |
Fidelity levels were calculated for
Fidelity level of traditional medicinal plants cited by informants against the corresponding human ailment.
Plant species | Diseases treated | | | FL values (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
| Wounds | 7 | 7 | 100 |
| Wounds | 8 | 8 | 100 |
| Eczema | 10 | 10 | 100 |
| Fibril illness | 5 | 5 | 100 |
| Stomachache and intestinal parasite | 12 | 15 | 80 |
| Blood pressure and stomachache | 18 | 24 | 75 |
| Diarrhea, wound and leishmaniasis | 15 | 20 | 75 |
| Common cold and toothache | 25 | 35 | 71.42 |
| Gastritis, malaria, and diarrhea | 25 | 45 | 55.56 |
| Tonsillitis, skin infection, and dysentery | 20 | 40 | 50 |
FL = fidelity level;
Of the total MPs collected, twenty (21.51%) of them are used as a source of both medicine and food (nutraceuticals). The ethnobotanical information revealed that many food crops have medicinal effects (Table
Lists of nutraceutical (used as both food and medicine) plants.
Botanical names | Family | Local names | Uses as food | Disease treated |
---|---|---|---|---|
| Alliaceae | Nech shinkurt | Bulb and leaf as food | Cough, evil eye, asthma |
| Brassicaceae | Gomen | Leaf/seed as food; oil | Skin rush |
| Brassicaceae | Sinafich | Used as spice | Abdominal pain |
| Solanaceae | Qaria | Fruit used as spice | Vomiting, dysentery |
| Apocynaceae | Agam | Edible fruit | Evil eye |
| Rubiaceae | Bunna | As stimulant | Wound |
| Poaceae | Teff | Human food | Bone fracture |
| Moraceae | Shoal | Edible fruit | Dysentery |
| Brassicaceae | Ensilal | Used as spice | Abdominal pain |
| Asteraceae | Nug | Sources of oil and fodder | Leech |
| Poaceae | Gebis | Food and fodder | Gastritis |
| Linaceae | Telba | Oil crop and fodder | Gastritis |
| Brassicaceae | Feto | Used as spices/food | Diarrhea |
| Fabaceae | Gibito | Seed used as food | Hypertension |
| Apiaceae | Tiqur-azmud | Used as spice | Common cold, asthma |
| Rosaceae | Kok | Edible fruit | Diarrhea |
| Rhamnaceae | Gesho | Stimulant/spices | Leech, tonsils, skin infection |
| Rutaceae | Tila-adam | Seed/leaf as spices | Stomachache |
| Urticaceae | Samma | Edible leaf | Gastritis |
| Zingiberaceae | Zinjibl | Used as spice | Stomachache |
In the study area, ethnobotanical information disclosed that MPs like
As elsewhere in Ethiopia, plant resources are vital for the livelihood of the Amhara people of Gozamin community. In the study sites, the resources are eroded from time to time because of the increment of population. Associated with this, the demand of agriculture (raring of livestock and cultivation) is high and therefore overgrazing and clearance of vegetation/forests are high. There is evidence of remnant plants at the spot in the grazing lands and farmlands of representative Kebeles in the Wereda where the data were collected. This indicates that overgrazing and deforestation were the main cause of the devastation of plants in the study area. Priority ranking factors (Table
Ranking of threats on medicinal plants cited by 7 respondents (values 1–5: 1 = the least destructive and 5 = the most destructive) (a single respondent mentioned two or more threats).
Threats | Respondents ( | Total | % | Rank | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | | | | | | ||||
Overgrazing | 5 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 29 | 26.12 | 1st |
Charcoal and firewood | 4 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 26 | 23.42 | 2nd |
Deforestation | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 26 | 23.42 | 2nd |
Drought | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 16 | 14.41 | 4th |
Mining | 3 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 14 | 12.61 | 5th |
Almost all of the informants are familiar with one and more than one threat for the scarcity of medicinal plants in the study area. Deforestation for firewood, charcoal, construction, agriculture, and mining is common practice in the study areas. The previous vegetation site has been changed drastically and the most useful plant species are at risk and they are on the way to be vanished. Similarly, Balemi et al. [
In Gozamin Wereda, irregular remnants of aged dry Afromontane evergreen forests that contain many MPs can be found mainly around the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Churches. Hence, someone sees a patch of indigenous old-aged trees in the study area; he/she can be sure that there is an Orthodox Church in the middle. Patches of forests are visible from a great distance. Similar findings were reported in Chekole et al. [
Some traditional practitioners in the study area have brought the different curative plans from different corners and started to conserve these MPs by cultivating at home-gardens. On the topic of this, Asfaw [
Likewise, few management practices are carried out in the home-gardens of Gozamin’s indigenous people. One of the practices is to the make an effort for maintaining diverse plant species in the garden as much as possible. Diversity is achieved through planting and protecting annual and perennial herbs and woody perennials in combinations. Management practices like intercropping and crop rotation were observed among very few farmers of the study area. In doing so, herbal remedies continued to exist because of the existence of other plant species. As a result, indigenous people can be excellent conservators of plant diversity. However, according to the informants, in most cases attempts regarding conservation were weak. Similarly, Lulekal et al. [
Through the ethnobotanical survey conducted from January 5, 2014, to February 15, 2015, a total of 93 MPs under 51 families and 87 genera were recorded and documented from 12 sample Kebeles of the local people for the treatment of different human and livestock ailments. The majority of the reported medicinal plant species were harvested from natural habitats. Furthermore, about 13% of medicinal plants of the study area were found endemic to Ethiopia. Both human and livestock health problems were most frequently treated by fresh plant material. Herbs were reported as the most dominant growth forms in the preparation of traditional remedies followed by shrubs, trees, and climbers. Leaves followed by roots were the dominant plant parts used for preparation of most remedies.
This study showed that traditional herbal medicine is playing a significant role in meeting the primary healthcare needs of Gozamin community. Acceptance of traditional herbal medicine and limited access to modern healthcare services could be considered as the main factors for the continuation of the practice. Some plant species were also reported to have uses other than their medicinal values. However, the efforts on the use and conservation of medicinal plants and associated indigenous knowledge were observed to be poor. Hence, awareness about the need for in situ and ex situ conservation should be created among the local communities and urgent measures must be given to threatened plant species.
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
All authors had significant intellectual contribution to the design of the study, data collection and analysis, and write-up of the manuscript. Authors conducted the fieldwork, identified the plants, analyzed the data, wrote the draft manuscript, and actively followed it up through revisions up to submission and after. Nigussie Amsalu designed the study, collected data, and confirmed the identification of the plants and data analysis; Yilkal Bezie was responsible for data collection, data analysis, and write-up and checked the final version; Mulugeta Fentahun was responsible for data collection, reviewed and edited the draft manuscript, provided comments and suggestions, and checked its final version. Addisu Alemayehu and Gashaw Amsalu were also responsible for data collection and reviewing the paper and hence all authors read and approved the final manuscript and agreed to its submission.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support received from Research and Directorate Office of Debre Markos University in implementing this research. They are indebted to the inhabitants of Gozamin Wereda, especially herbal healers who undeservedly shared with them their knowledge on MPs along with their wonderful hospitality and kind response to their inquiries on information in the study areas during field activities. Finally, they would like to extend their gratitude to Wereda Agricultural and Rural Development Office for providing various secondary basic data in support of their study.