Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2018 (2018), Article ID 4089541, 58 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4089541

Review Article

African Herbal Remedies with Antioxidant Activity: A Potential Resource Base for Wound Treatment

Mary Gulumian,1,2 Ewura Seidu Yahaya,3,4 and Vanessa Steenkamp³

¹National Institute for Occupational Health, Johannesburg, South Africa
²Haematology and Molecular Medicine, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
³Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
⁴Department of Pharmacology, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana

Correspondence should be addressed to Mary Gulumian; mary.gulumian@nioh.nhls.ac.za

Received 3 May 2018; Revised 23 October 2018; Accepted 7 November 2018; Published 22 November 2018

Academic Editor: Olumayokun A. Olajide

Copyright © 2018 Mary Gulumian et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract.

The use of traditional herbal remedies as alternative medicine plays an important role in Africa since it forms part of primary health care for treatment of various medical conditions, including wounds. Although physiological levels of free radicals are essential to the healing process, they are known to partly contribute to wound chronicity when in excess. Consequently, antioxidant therapy has been shown to facilitate healing of such wounds. Also, a growing body of evidence suggests that, at least, part of the therapeutic value of herbals may be explained by their antioxidant activity. This paper reviews African herbal remedies with antioxidant activity with the aim of indicating potential resources for wound treatment. Firstly, herbals with identified antioxidant compounds and, secondly, herbals with proven antioxidant activity, but where the compound(s) responsible for the activity has not yet been identified, are listed. In the latter case it has been attempted to ascribe the activity to a compound known to be present in the plant family and/or species, where related activity has previously been documented for another genus of the species. Also, the tests employed to assess antioxidant activity and the potential caveats thereof during assessment are briefly commented on.

1. Introduction

Human cells are continuously exposed to exogenous oxidants as well as to those produced endogenously during normal physiological processes. Antioxidants form part of protective mechanisms that exist in human cells to scavenge and neutralize these oxidants. Oxidants such as the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) are involved in several diseases [1, 2]. Antioxidant defenses are defective in these diseases and therefore it is possible to limit oxidative damage and ameliorate disease progression with antioxidant supplementation [3].

With reference to wounds, antioxidants play pivotal roles that consequently restore normalcy to injured skin. Basal levels of ROS and other free radicals are essential in almost all phases of the wound healing process (Figure 1) [4]. During haemostasis, ROS regulates the constriction of blood vessels to limit loss of blood. Furthermore, ROS facilitates the migration of neutrophils and monocytes from surrounding blood vessels towards the injury site. The presence of ROS and other free radicals in the wound vicinity during the inflammatory phase of the healing process is also required for infection control and general maintenance of sterility. Finally, ROS promotes the proliferation of keratinocytes, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts, thereby enhancing angiogenesis and collagen deposition. However, uncontrolled release of ROS could cause oxidative stress, resulting in cellular and tissue damage, thereby causing delayed healing [1].

Figure 1: Role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the wound healing process.

To keep ROS within physiological levels, antioxidants serve as electron donors, thereby preventing them from capturing electrons from other molecules which ultimately leads to their destruction [4]. Both nonenzymatic antioxidants such as glutathione, ascorbic acid, and α-tocopherol, as well as enzymatic antioxidants like catalase and peroxiredoxin, have shown potential to normalize high ROS levels and thus stimulate healing [4]. By normalizing ROS, antioxidants can enhance their physiological roles and thereby accelerate the wound healing process. Naturally occurring antioxidants are generally favoured over their synthetic counterparts, as the latter are suspected to cause or promote negative health effects [5]. This has resulted in the restricted use of synthetic antioxidants in several countries [6].

This review provides a comprehensive list of African medicinal plants and isolated compounds with antioxidant activities, with the aim of highlighting the continent’s rich herbal resource base for possible management of wounds and allied conditions. Previous reviews have listed a number of these African medicinal plants with antioxidant properties [7–9]. The present work has therefore aimed to expand the list to include medicinal plant species with antioxidant properties that are used in different African countries including those from Madagascar and Mauritius. For the sake of inclusivity, plants that have been shown to contain compounds that hold the potential of being novel antioxidants are also considered. In addition, those with anti-inflammatory properties were also included due to an earlier observation that the anti-inflammatory activities of the same extracts could be explained, at least in part, by their antioxidant properties [10]. Additional efforts were also made to include information, where available, on their vernacular names, their regional distribution, and medicinal use and plant parts used for these preparations or for the isolation of the antioxidant ingredient(s). Table 1 lists medicinal plants that have been investigated and have confirmed antioxidant and/or anti-inflammatory activity and that contain compounds which are known to have such activities. Table 2 on the other hand lists medicinal plants that have confirmed antioxidant activity but the compounds responsible for their antioxidant property have not yet been identified.

Table 1: Medicinal plants with confirmed antioxidant activity, shown to contain compounds that are known to have such activity.

Family and plant name
Vernacular name
Plant part
Country/area
Medicinal use and/or experimental validation
Compounds isolated
Reference

Aloaceae

Aloe barbadensis Mill.
Burn plant,
siber, sbar/essouktouri /mar, sbar
Leaf exudate
Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia
Antioxidant activity.
Used as laxative, purgative, diuretic, asthma, baldness, cuts, bounds, skin rash.
Flavonoids, two dihydrocoumarin derivatives and two flavone glycosides
[32–34]

Aloe claviflora  Burch.
Kraal aloe
Leaf exudate
South Africa
Radical scavenging activity and moderate activity in the lipid peroxidation assay
Chromone glycoside
[35, 36]

A. saponaria (Ait.) Haw.
Mpelu
Mnemvu
Soap aloe, African aloe
Leaf exudate
South Africa
Radical scavenging activity and moderate activity in the lipid peroxidation assay
Chromone glycoside
[35, 37]

A. thraskii  Baker
Dune aloe, ikhala, umhlaba
Leaf exudate
 South Africa
Radical scavenging activity and moderate activity in the lipid peroxidation assay
Chromone glycoside
[35, 36]

Amaranthaceae

Amaranthus caudatus L.
Tassel flower
Seed;
Young shoots
Ethiopia
Antioxidant properties
Tocopherols, phenolic acids
[38–40]

Anacardiaceae

Anacardium occidentale L.
Not signalized
Stem-bark
Nigeria
Anti-inflammatory properties.
Agathisflavone, quercetin 3-O-rutinoside, quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside
[41, 42]

Lannea edulis Engl.
Wild Grape
Root-bark
Zimbabwe
Semipolar extracts high activity both as radical scavengers and lipoxygenase inhibitors. Lipophilic extracts inhibitor of 15-lipoxygenase.
Used for painful menstruation, urogenital infection, sexually transmitted diseases.
Two alkylphenols (cardonol 7 and cordonol 13) and three dihydroalkylhexenones
[43–45]

Lannea velutina A. Rich
Bemmbeyi
Raisinier velu, Lannéa velouté
Leaves, bark, root
 Mali
Antioxidant properties
Proanthocyanidins
[46, 47]

Mangifera indica L.
Mango
Mangoro
Leaves, seeds,
stem-bark
Benin
Burkina Faso
Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and hypoglycemic effects.
Used to treat urogenital infection, tonic, diarrhoea, tooth ache, gingivitis, liver disease, diabetes.
Polyphenolics, flavonoids
[12, 13, 46, 47]

Apiaceae

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.
Gotu kola
Leaves
 South Africa
Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities.
Used for wound healing. Protection against radiation-induced injury.
Cardio protective effect.
Oral treatment increased antioxidant enzymes.
Quercetin and tetrandrine
[48–55]

Apocynaceae

Alstonia boonei De Wild.
Awun,
Egbu
Stem-bark
Root-bark
Nigeria
Ghana
Anti-inflammatory activity.
Used for its analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties.
Rutin, Quercetin robinobioside,
Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, Kaempferol-3-O-robinobioside
[56–59]

Catharanthus roseus 
 (L.) G. Don
Madagascar
periwinkle
kaka poul, karaktè dezosm blan, zèb sosyé
Whole plant
Madagascar
Antioxidant activity and ability to increase antioxidant enzymes.
Used for conjunctivitis.
Phenols
[60]

Arecaceae

Elaeis guineensis Jacq.
Ori
Nuts
Ghana 
 Nigeria
Anti-inflammatory activity.
Used to treat rheumatoid arthritis.
3,4 hydroxybenzaldehyde, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, syringic acid, ferulic acid, carotenoids, α-tocopherol
[12, 61]

Asclepiadaceae

Secamone afzelii Rhoem.
Ahaban
Kroratima
Stem
Central Africa
Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Used for wound healing.
Flavonoids, caffeic acid derivatives and α-tocopherol.
[62–64]

Asphodelaceae

Bulbine capitata Poelln.
Scented grass bulbine
Roots
Aerial parts
South Africa
Anti-inflammatory and weak antioxidant and free radical scavenging and lipid peroxidation inhibition activities.
Knipholone as a selective inhibitor of leukotriene metabolism.
Used as a mild purgative and to cure gonorrhoeal infections.
Anthraquinone Knipholone
[65–73]

Bulbine frutescens Willd.
Snake flower, cat’s tail,
burn jelly plant
Leaf juice
Roots
 South Africa
Anti-inflammatory and weak antioxidant and free radical scavenging and lipid peroxidation inhibition activities.
Knipholone is a selective inhibitor of leukotriene metabolism.
Used to treat burns, rashes, blisters, insect bites, cracked lips, acne, cold sores, mouth ulcers and areas of cracked skin.
Phenylanthraquinones,
Isofuranonaphthoquinones,
Gaboroquinones A and B and 4′-O-demethylknipholone-4′-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, and Knipholone (anthroquinone)
[65, 67, 70, 74, 75]

Kniphofia foliosa Hochst.
Red-not-peker

 Kenya
Anti-inflammatory and weak antioxidant and free radical scavenging and lipid peroxidation inhibition activities. Knipholone as a selective inhibitor of leukotriene metabolism.
Used for abdominal cramps, wound healing
Anthraquinone: Knipholone
[65, 76–78]

Asteraceae

Artemisia abyssinica Sch.Bip.
Chikugn (Amharic)
Arrtta bera (Or)
Whole plant
Ethiopia
Radical scavenging and antioxidant activities.
Used for stomach pain and wound healing.
Essential oils and flavonoids
[79–82]

A. afra Jacq.
 ex Willd.
African wormwood
Wild wormwood
Roots, stems and leaves
Ethiopia
South Africa
Radical scavenging and antioxidant activities.
Used for stomach pain, coughs, colds, fever, loss of appetite, colic, headache, earache, intestinal worms to malaria.
Essential oils and flavonoids
[79, 82–84]

A. arvensis L.
Mugwort
Wormwood
Whole plant
 Algeria
Radical scavenging and antioxidant activities.
Phenolic compounds and flavonoids.
[85]

A. campestris L.
Field sagewort 
 Field wormwood
Whole plant
 Algeria
Radical scavenging and antioxidant activities.
Used to treat insomnia
Phenolic compounds and flavonoids.
[85–87]

Bidens pilosa L.
Black jack
Leaves
Roots
South Africa
Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antihypertensive activities.
Used to treat diabetes and backache.
Phenolic compounds: quercetin 3-O-rabinobioside, quercetin 3-O-rutinoside.
Two novel methoxylated flavone glycosides: quercetin 3,3′-dimethyl ether 7-
O-c¢-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 ~ 6)-fl-D-glucopyranoside and the known quercetin 3,3′-dimethyl ether 7-O-fl-D-
glucopyranoside
[19, 88–91]

Cynara scolymus L.
Globe
artichoke
Leaves
Ethiopia
Antioxidative and lipid-lowering properties and eNOS up-regulating ability.
Used to treat chronic liver and gall bladder diseases, jaundice, hepatitis and atherosclerosis.
Polyphenolic flavonoid compounds
[14, 15, 92, 93]

Helichrysum dasyanthum Sweet
Afrikaans common name of kooigoed (bedding material)
Leaves
South Africa
Antioxidant, radical scavenging and anti-inflammatory activities.
Used to treat wounds, infections, respiratory conditions.
Essential oils
[94–96]

H. petiolare Hilliard & B.L. Burtt.
Everlasting, Imphepho
Leaves
 South Africa
Antioxidant, radical scavenging and anti-inflammatory activities.
Used to treat wounds, infections, respiratory conditions, asthma, chest problems and high blood pressure
Essential oils
[94–96]

Tagetes minuta L.
Khaki bush
stinking roger
muster John Henry, wild marigold
Leaves
 Madagascar
Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity.
Used as anthelmintic, antispasmodic, purgative and for the treatment of gastritis, indigestion and internal worms.
Essential oils.
[23, 97]

Balanophoraceae

Thonningia sanguinea Vahl.
Nkomango
Roots
 Ghana
Antioxidative and radical scavenging activities and lipid peroxidation inhibitory activity.
Used for bronchial asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis and diabetes.
Ellagitannins: Thonningianin A and B
[98–103]

Balanitaceae

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile
Hausa: aduwa
Desert date
Bark and roots
East Africa
Antioxidant properties in vitro confirmed.
The bark and roots are used as laxatives, and for colic. The bark is used for sore throats, and as a remedy for sterility, mental diseases, epilepsy, yellow fever, syphilis, and tooth aches.
Coumarins, flavonoids, saponins (Balanin 1 (3β,12β,14β,16β) cholest-5-ene-3,16-diyl bis (β-d -glucopyranoside)- 12-sulphate, a new sterol sulfonated and Balanin 2 (3β,20S,22R,25R)-26-hydroxy-22-acetoxyfurost-5-en-3- yl-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-glucopyranoside, a novel furostanol saponin)
[11, 104–106]

Bignoniaceae

Jacaranda mimosaefolia D.Don.
Sharpleaf Jacaranda
Leaves
Stem-bark
 Nigeria
Shown to have antimicrobial activity and used to treat infections
Phenylethanoid glucoside, jacaranone
[107–109]

Spathodea campanulata P.Beauv.
African tulip
Stem-bark
Nigeria, Ghana,
Cameroon (Yaounde region)
Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, anticomplement and anti-HIV activities.
Used to treat itching, arthritis, and diabetes.
Flavonoids and caffeic acid derivatives
[63, 110]

Tecoma stans (L.)
H.B. & K.
Yellow
trumpet bush
Leaves
Stem-bark
 Nigeria
Anti-diabetic activity is shown.
4-O-E-caffeoyl-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1′→ 3)-alpha/beta-D-glucopyranose, E/Z-acetoside, isoacetoside
[107, 111]

Capparaceae

Cleome arabica L.
Cleome efeina
Leaves
Egypt
Antioxidant activity, inhibited lipoxygenase activity and calcium ionophore-stimulated LTB4 synthesis in human neutrophils.
Used to treat wounds and prevent inflammation
Rutin and quercetin.
[112, 113]

Clusiaceae

Garcinia kola Heckel
Bitter cola/aku ilu, agbu ilu.
Nigeria
Hausa:
Góórò pl. gwârráá or gòòràrràkáí
Seeds
 Nigeria
Inhibit lipid peroxidation and protective against H₂O₂-induced DNA strand breaks and oxidized bases.
Used for laryngitis, coughs, liver disease, bronchitis and throat infections. Inhibits Aflatoxin B1 induced genotoxicity.
Biflavonoid: kolaviron
[114–120]

Harungana madagascariensis Poir.
Otori
Stem-bark
 Eastern Nigeria
Significant antioxidant activity.
Used to treat skin diseases.
Prenylated Anthronoids: harunmadagascarin A [8,9-dihydroxy-4,4-bis-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-6-methyl-2,3-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)anthrone], harunganol B
[121–123]

Hypericum carinatum Griseb.
Not signalized
Leaves
Egypt
Antioxidant and radical scavenging activities.
Benzophenones: cariphenone A (6-benzoyl-5,7-dihydroxy-2,2,8-trimethyl-2H-chromene) and cariphenone B (8-benzoyl-5,7-dihydroxy-2,2,6-trimethyl-2H-chromene).
[124, 125]

H. perforatum L.
Common St.-Johns’ wort
Whole plant
 Egypt
Anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities. Free radical scavenging, metal-chelation, and reactive oxygen quenching activities. Protective against scopolamine-induced altered brain oxidative stress status and amnesia in rats. Ability to suppress the activities of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), key enzymes in the formation of proinflammatory eicosanoids from arachidonic acid (AA).
Analgesic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, digestive, diuretic and sedative.
Flavonoids: Rutin, hyperoside, isoquercitrin, avicularin, quercitrin, and quercetin.
[124, 126–131]

Cochlospermaceae

Cochlospermum tinctorium A.Rich.
N’tiribara
Roots
Sudan, Uganda
West Africa
Antioxidant activity.
Used for malaria, jaundice.
Polyphenols: gallotannins and ferulic acids
[35]

Combretaceae

Combretum woodii Drum.
Large-leaved forest bushwillow
Leaf
South Africa
Antioxidant and antibacterial activities. Also tannins showed inhibitory effect on Fe²⁺-induced lipid peroxidation and radical scavenger activity.
Used for pneumonia, syphilis, abdominal pain and conjunctivitis.
Polyphenols: Combretastatin B5 (2′,3′4-trihydroxyl,3,5,4′-trimethoxybibenzyl).
Tannins.
[132–137]

Combretum imberbe
Not signified

South Africa
Combretum species are widely used for treating abdominal disorders (e.g. abdominal pains, diarrhea) backache, bilharziasis, chest coughs, colds, conjunctivitis, dysmenorrhoea, earache, fattening babies, fever, headache
1α,3β-dihydroxy-12-oleanen-29-oic, 1-hydroxy-12-olean-30-oic acid, 3,30-dihydroxyl-12-oleanen-22-one, and 1,3,24-trihydroxyl-12-olean-29-oic acid, a new pentacyclic triterpenoid (1α,23-dihydroxy-12-oleanen-29-oic acid-3β-O-2,4-di-acetyl-l-rhamnopyranoside)
[138]

Guiera senegalensis J.F.Gmel.
N’kundjè
Leaf
Western Africa
Antioxidant and radical scavenging activities.
Used to treat dysentery, diarrhoea, gastro-intestinal pains and disorders, rheumatism, diabetes and fever.
Flavonol aglycones, flavonol glycosides and flavonoids (catechin, myricitrin, rutin and quercetin) as well as tannins (galloylquinic acids (hydrolysable tannins).
[139–143]

Terminalia sericea Burch. ex DC.
Silver cluster-leaf
Bark
South Africa
Radical scavenging and antioxidant activities.
Used to treat diabetes and pneumonia and to relieve colic
Pentacyclic triterpenoids
Anolignan B
[21, 136, 144]

Commelinaceae

Commelina diffusa Burm.f.
Wandering Jew
Climbing day flower
Leaves
Ghanna
Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.
Used to treat fever and is diuretic
Flavonoids
[63, 145]

Palisota hirsuta K.Schum.,
Not signified
Aqueous leaf extracts
Nigeria
Anti-inflammatory effects against carrageenan induced hind paw oedema
Not identified
[146, 147]

Crassulaceae

Bryophyllum 
 pinnatum 
 (Lam.) Oken
Synonym: Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers.
Ufu ivo
Leaves
Nigeria, South Africa
Anti-inflammatory properties.
Used for earache.
Flavonoids, polyphenols, triterpenoids
[12, 148, 149]

Cupressaceae

Juniperus procera 
 Hochst ex. Endl.
African Juniper
Young twigs and buds
Ethiopia
Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities.
Used to relieve stomach pain.
Essental oils
[79, 150, 151]

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea dumetorum (Kunth) pax
Yam
Tubers
 Nigeria
Antioxidant activity to modify serum lipid and anti-inflammatory activity.
Used to treat diabetes.
Dioscorea and Dioscoretine
[152–154]

Drosera madagascariensis 
 (DC.)
D. ramentacea Burchell
Sundew
Roots and flowers
 Madagascar
Anti-inflammatory effects.
Used to treat coughs and asthma
Flavonoids: hyperoside, quercetin and isoquercitrin
[155, 156]

Drosera rotundifolia L.
Round-leaf Sundew
Roots and flowers
 Madagascar
Anti-inflammatory effects.
Used to treat coughs and asthma
Flavonoids: hyperoside, quercetin and isoquercitrin
[155, 157]

Euphorbiaceae

Alchornea laxiflora (Benth) Pax & K. Hoffm.
Wild banana
Leaf and root
 Nigeria
Antioxidant and anti-microbial activity.
Used to treat jaundice and liver disorders. Also used in food preservation.
Quercetin-7,4′-disulphate, quercetin, quercetin-3′,4′-disulphate, quercetin-3,4′-diacetate, rutin and quercetrin
[158–161]

Bridelia ferruginea Benth.
Ora
Leaves, stem
and bark
West Africa
Democratic republic of Congo, Nigeria
Anti-inflammatory.
Used to treat diarrhea, dysentery, gastro-intestinal disorders, gynecological disorders (including sterility), and rheumatic pains.
A bioflavonoid: Gallocatechin-(4′→O →7)-Epigallocatechin.
[12, 57, 162–166]

Mallotus oppositifolius (Geiseler) Muell. Arg.
Jororo
Káfàr mútúwàà
Senampendi
Mvundza jembe
Leaves, roots
 West Africa
Nigeria
Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities.
Used for abortion.
Flavonoids: quercetin and quercitrin.
[167–172]

Fabaceae

Aspalathus linearis (Brum. F.) R. Dahlgr.
Rooibos
Leaves
South Africa
Radical Scavenging Capacity
Used to treat stomach cramps, insomnia, and to reduce stress.
Phenolic Fractions, Tannins and monomeric flavonoids aspalathin, nothofagin, quercetin, rutin, isoquercitrin, orientin, isoorientin, luteolin, vitexin, isovitexin, and chrysoeriol.
[16–21, 173, 174]

Burkea africana Hook
Wild Syringa
Bark
Mali and Sub-Saharan Africa
Antioxidant and radical scavenging activity.
Used to treat coughs, colds, stomach obstruction, infusions against gonorrhoea and syphilis.
Proanthocyanidins; fisetinidol-(4alpha- >8)-catechin 3-gallate and bis-fisetinidol-(4alpha- >6, 4alpha- >8)-catechin 3-gallate, with smaller amounts of flavan-3-ols (catechin, epicatechin and fisetinidol)
[175, 176]

Crotalaria podocarpa DC.
Crotalaria
Roots
South Africa
Anti-inflammatory activity.
Used for the treatment of sore-eyes and boils.
Expectorant.
Flavonoids
[67, 177]

Cyclopia intermedia 
 E. Mey. and C. subternata Vog.
Honeybush
Leaves and stem
 South Africa
Antioxidant activity.
Used as tonic for colds, catarrh and tuberculosis.
Pinitol, shikimic acid, p-coumaric acid, 4-glucosyltyrosol, epigallocatechin gallate, the isoflavone orobol, the flavanones hesperedin, narirutin and eriocitrin, a glycosylated flavan, the flavones luteolin, 5-deoxyluteolin and scolymoside, the xanthone mangiferin and the flavonol C-6-glucosylkaempferol.
Phenolic content: tyrosol and a methoxy analogue, 2-[4-[O-alpha-apiofuranosyl-(1′′→6′)-beta-d-glucopyranosyloxy] phenyl]ethanol, 4-[O-alpha-apiofuranosyl-(1′′→2′)-beta-d-glucopyranosyloxy]benzaldehyde, five glycosylated flavonols, two isoflavones, four flavanones, two isoflavones, and two flavones
[19, 21, 178–181]

Eriosema robustum

Twigs
Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon
Used traditionally for the treatment of coughs in East Africa and skin diseases in Central Africa
2′,3′,5′,5,7-pentahydroxy-3,40-dimethoxyflavone,
2′,3,5′,5,7-pentahydroxy-4′-methoxyflavone
[182, 183]

Erythrina latissima 
 E. Mey.
Broad-leaved coral tree
Stem Wood
Root wood
Seeds
South Africa
Botswana
Antimicrobial activity and weak radical scavenging properties.
Purgative.
Flavonoids and isoflavonoids.
Isoflavones: erylatissin A and B. Flavanone: erylatissin C
and flavonoids and
Isoflavone glycosides: 4′-hydroxyisoflavone-7-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside (compound 1); 4′-hydroxyisoflavone-7-O-alpha-L-rhamnosyl (1→6)-beta-D-glucopyranoside (compound 2); and a new compound 4′, 8-dimethoxy isoflavone-7-O-alpha-L-rhamnosyl (1→6) glucopyranoside (8-O-methylretusin-7-O-alpha-L-rhamnosyl (1-6)-beta-D-glucopyranoside) (compound 3) Isoflavonoids: 5,7-dihydroxy-2′,4′,5′-trimethoxyisoflavanone.
[67, 184–186]

E. lysistemon 
 Hutch.
Common coral tree; lucky bean tree
Bark
South Africa
Mild antioxidant activity.
Used to treat sores, wounds, abscesses and arthritis.
Three prenylated flavonoid derivatives; 5,7,4′-trihydroxy-8-(3′′′-methylbut-2′′′-enyl)-6-(2′′-hydroxy-3′′-methylbut-3′′ enyl) isoflavone (isoerysenegalensein E), 5,7,2′-trihydroxy-4′-methoxy-5′-(3′′-methylbut-2′′-enyl) isoflavanone (lysisteisoflavanone), 5, 4′-dihydroxy-6-(3′′′-methylbut-2′′′-enyl)-2′′-hydroxyisopropyl dihydrofurano [4′′,5′′:8,7] isoflavone (isosenegalensin), together with the four known flavonoids abyssinone V-4′-methylether, alpinumisoflavone, wighteone and burttinone
[187–190]

Melilotus elegans 
 Salzm. ex Ser.
(syn. M. 
 abyssinica Baker)
Egug, Gugi, Yemen berri
Elegant sweet clover
Leaves
Ethiopia
Anti-inflammatory properties.
Used for asthma, haemorrhoid, wounds, excavated sore, piles, ulcers mouth infection, lacerated wounds,
haemorrhoids, bronchial asthma (personal
communication)
Flavonoids: kaempferol
[191–194]

Millettia griffoniana 
 Baill.
Not signalized
Root-bark and
seeds
Cameroon
Anti-inflammatory activity.
Used as an antimalarial.
Coumarin: 4-hydroxy-3-(3′,4′-methylenedioxyphenyl)-5,6,7-trimethoxycoumarin, durmillone, odorantin, 7-methoxyebenosin, calopogonium isoflavone B and 7,2′-dimethoxy-4′,5′-methylenedioxy isoflavone maximaisoflavone G (5) and 7-hydroxy-6-methoxy-3′,4′-methylenedioxyisoflavone and new prenylated isoflavonoids griffonianones A, B, C, D and E.Griffonianone D ((7E)-(6′′,7′′-dihydroxy-3′′,7′′-dimethyloct-2′′-enyl)oxy-4′-methoxyisoflavone), an isoflavone.
[195–202]

Parkia biglobosa 
 (Jacq.) Benth
African Locust Bean
Nèrè
Ojinyi
Bark
Seeds
Mali
Sudan
Ivory Coast
Anti-inflammatory activity.
Used as antiseptic and to treat coughs, chest pain, and wound healing
Tocopherol, ascorbic acid (Seeds)
[12, 33, 34, 36–39, 43–53, 55, 64, 66–72, 118, 119, 121, 138, 159, 182, 195, 203–235]

Peltophorum africanum Sond.
Weeping wttle
Root and bark
South Africa
Antioxidant and antibacterial activities
Used to treat diarrhoea, dysentery, sore throat, wounds, back and joint pains, HIV-AIDS, venereal diseases and infertility.
Flavonol glycosides and flavonol glucoside gallates
[236–238]

Piliostigma thonningii 
 (Schum.) Milne- Redh
Camel’s foot tree, Monkey Bread
Niama (Mali).
Abefe
Kalgo
Okpoatu
Omepa
Root, bark, pods, leaves
Nigeria, Ethiopia Botswana, Kenya, Namibia, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia
Anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Used to treat wounds, chronic ulcers, cough, respiratory disorders and toothache, gum inflammation, arthritis, headache, backache, and
antioxidant supplement.
Proanthocyanidins epicatechin, catechin trimers and oligomers, flavonoids, polyphenolics,
C-methylflavonols (in the leaf extract)
[12, 58, 239–245]

Sutherlandia frutescens R.Br.
Cancerbush
Phetola
Leaves
South Africa
Superoxide and hydrogen peroxide scavenging activities.
Used as tonic to boost the immune system.
Canavanine, pinitol
[246–248]

Trigonella foenumgraecum L.
Fenugreek
Seeds
Ethiopia, Morocco
Protective effect against Oxidative stress during ischemia-reperfusion.
It is hypolipidemic, and is also used to treat boils and to improve appetite.
Free phenolics and Vit C.
[26–28, 249, 250]

Humiriaceae

Sacoglottis gabonensis Urb.
Cherry tree, ozouga
Stem-bark
 West Africa
Antioxidant activity.
Bergenin
[251–254]

Hypoxidaceae

Hypoxis hemerocallidea Fisch. & C.A. Mey.
African potato
Corms
South Africa
Antioxidant activity.
Used to treat tuberculosis, cancer, bladder disorders, benign prostatic hyperplasia.
Rooperol
[188, 255–257]

Lamiaceae

Ocimum basilicum L.
Mükandu
Basil
Leaves
Burkina Faso
Ethiopia
Intermediate antioxidant activity and high antibacterial activity.
Used in Ethiopia to treat Conjunctivitis and in
Kenya to treat colds and stomacheache.
Linalool basil oil
Methyl chavicol, eugenol, (E)-methyl cinnamate, thymol, linalool
[23, 258]

Ocimum gratissimum L.
Tea bush, Scent leaf/Nchuanwu.
Ujuju okpevu
Basil
Leaves
Popular republic of Congo (ex Brazaville Congo)
Eastern Nigeria
Antioxidant activity
Popular republic of Congo it is used as a laxative, purgative, and to treat snakebite, diabetes, tooth ache, gingivitis.
Xanthomicrol, cirsimaritin, rutin, kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside and vicenin-2 were identified as the major flavonoids, whereas luteolin 5-O-glucoside, luteolin 7-O-glucoside, apigenin 7-O-glucoside, vitexin, isovitexin, quercetin 3-O-glucoside and isothymusin were detected as minor constituents.
[12, 58, 258–262]

Lauraceae

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Breyne
Cinnamon leaf
Leaves
 Madagascar
Ethiopia
Very high antioxidant and high antimicrobial activities.
Used to treat diarrhoea, rheumatism, colds and hypertension
Cinnamaldehyde, eugenol and eugenyl acetate to be the main constituents of cinnamon oil.
[22–24, 263]

Ocotea bullata (Burch.) Baill.
Black stinkwood
Unukane (Zulu)
Bark
 South Africa
Anti-inflammatory, cyclooxygenase inhibitory activity.
Urinary disorders, headaches.
Monoterpenoids
[188, 264]

Ravensara aromatica Sonn.
Nutmeg
havozo
Bark
Leaf
 Madagascar
Low antioxidant and antimicrobial activity.
Useful for chronic respiratory conditions, and sometimes helpful in cases of asthma.
Essential oils, principally composed of the monoterpene hydrocarbons a-pinene, sabinene, myrcene, limonene, & the azulene: iso-ledene. In barks, estragole (methyl chavicol) but leaves contain b-myrcene, 1,8-cineole, linalool, and carotol.
[23, 25, 265]

Malvaceae

Hibiscus sabdariffa L.
Red tea,
sorelle
Rosella
Flowers
Nigeria
South Africa
Antimutagenic activity and free radical scavenging effects on active oxygen species
Used against insomnia, colic.
Flavonol glucoside hibiscitrin
Anthocyanins. Such as cyanidin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, cyanidin 3-O-(2-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside, delphinidin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside and delphinidin 3-O-(2-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside.
[19, 21, 266–269]

Meliaceae

Trichilia roka 
 Chiov.
Soulafinzan

Root
Tropical Africa Mali
Significantly protective against CCl₄-induced liver damage and prevented perisinusoidal fibrosis.
Used to treat malaria, abdominal pain and dermatitis.
Polyphenols
[270, 271]

Menispermaceae

Sphenocentrum jollyanum Pierre
Akerejupon
ajo
Fruit
Root
 West Africa
Anti-inflammatory activity.
Used to treat inflammatory-based diseases
Furanoditerpenes: columbin, isocolumbin.
Flavonoids-rich fraction.
[272–274]

Tinospora bakis

Whole plant
Sudan
Anti-inflammatory activity. To treat headache and rheumatism
A diterpenoid furanolactone, columbin
[275]

Moraceae

Dorstenia barteri 
 var. subtriangularis (Engler)
M.E.E.Hijman & C.C.Berg
Contrayerva
Twigs/leaves
Cameroon
Antioxidant properties account for the anti-inflammatory action of these extracts
Used to treat arthritis, rheumatism, gout, headache and other forms of body pains.
Prenylated flavonoids: Three diprenylated chalcones: bartericins A (-)-3-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-5′-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-4,2′,4′-trihydroxychalcone, bartericins B (+)-3-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-4′,5′-[2′′′-(1-hydroxy-1-methylethyl)-dihydrofurano]-4,2′-dihydroxychalcone and bartericins C 3,4-(6′′,6′′-dimethyldihydropyrano)-4′,5′-[2′′′,-(1-hydroxy-1-methylethyl)-dihydrofurano]-2′-hydroxychalcone and also two novel diprenylated chalcones: 3,5′-di-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-4,2′,4′-trihydroxychalcone, 3, 4-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)-3′-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-2′,4′-dihydroxychalcone, 4,2′, 4′-trihydoxy-3′-prenylchalcone and 4,2′,4′-trihydoxy-3, 3′-diprenylchalcone; and 5,7,4′-trihydoxy-8-prenylflavone.
Other known compounds such as stipulin, 4-hydroxylonchocarpin, kanzonol B, 3′-(2-Hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-5′-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-4,2′,4′-trihydroxychalcone, and dorstenone.
[67, 276–281]

D. ciliata Engl.
Contrayerva
Aerial parts
Cameroon
Central Africa
Antiradical and antioxidant activities.
Used as food additive.
phenolic compound (6-prenylapigenin)
Flavones: (ciliatin A) 5,4′-Dihydroxy-5′′-isopropenyldihydrfuranol[2′′,3′′:7,6]flavone
(ciliatin B) 7,4′-Dihydroxy-3′-methoxy-6′′,6′′-dimethyldihydropyranol[2′′,3′′:5,6].
[282–284]

D. convexa De Wild.
Contrayerva
Twigs and
leaves
 Democratic Republic of the Congo
Antioxidant properties account for the anti-inflammatory action of these extracts.
Used to treat arthritis, rheumatism, gout, headache and other forms of body pains.
Prenylated flavonoids
[67, 276, 280]

D. mannii Hook.f.
Contrayerva
Twigs/leaves
Aerial parts
 Central Africa
Antioxidant action against copper-induced LDL oxidation, this activity is like the non-prenylated flavonoid quercetin. Also, inhibition of platelet aggregation and influence of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase activity.
Used to treat rheumatism, stomach disorders.
Anti-trichomonal activity.
Grenylated and prenylated flavonoids and flavonones:
Flavonones: 6,8-diprenyl-5,7,3′4′-tetrahydroxyflavanone, 4-hydroxylonchocarpin, 4-methoxylonchocarpin, 6-prenylchrysoeriol, 6,8-diprenyleriodictyol, gancaonin P and Prenylated flavonoids: 6,8-diprenyleriodictyol, dorsmanin C 7,8-(2,2-Dimethylchromeno)-6-geranyl-3,5,3′,4′-tetrahydroxyflavone and dorsmanin D 6,8-Diprenyl-3,5,7,4′-tetrahydroxy-3′-methoxyflavone,
dorsmanins 1, J and 2′′-epimers of dorsmanins F (6,7-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)-8-prenyl-5,3′,4′-trihydroxyflavanone, G (6,7-(2,2-dimethyldihydro-pyrano)-8-prenyl-5,3′,4′-trihydroxflavanone). Also, dorsmanins F and G.
Four new prenylated flavanones, named dorsamine F (7,8-[2′′-(1-hydroxy-1-methylethyl)-dihydrofurano]-6-prenyl-5,3′,4′-trihydroxyflavanone), dorsmaine G (6,7-[2′′-(1-hydroxy-1-methylethyl)dihydrofurano]-8-prenyl-5,3′,4′-trihydroxyflavanone) and dorsamine H (6-prenyl-8-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-5,7,3′,4′-tetrahydroxyflavanone).
[67, 187, 207, 285–287]

D. poinsettifolia var. angusta Engl.
Dingetenga
Whole plant
Cameroon
Antiradical and antioxidant activities.
Used to treat infected wounds.
Grenylated and prenylated flavonoids. The unusual 4-phenyl-substituted dihydrocoumarin and the rare geranyl-and prenyl-substituted Chalcone.
[207, 288, 289]

D. psilurus Welw.
Dingetenga
Roots
 Cameroon Central Africa
Antiradical and antioxidant activities.
Used against snakebite and to treat rheumatism, headache and stomach disorders.
Grenylated and prenylated flavonoids.
Three phenolic compounds: 6,8-diprenyl-3′ [O],4′-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)-3,5,7-trihydroxyflavone, 3,6-diprenyl-8-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-5,7,2′,4′-tetrahydroxyflavone and an unusualB/C ring modified flavonoid derivative for which the names dorsilurins C, D and E, respectively, are proposed.
Two new flavones, dorsilurins A and B, and a new benzofuran derivative have been isolated from Dorstenia psilurus, together with three known phenylpropanoid derivatives, stearyl-p-coumarate [octadecanyl 3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)prop-2-enoate], stearyl ferulate [octadecanyl 3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)prop-2-enoate] and psoralen.
[206, 282, 290–292]

Myrtaceae

Eugenia elliptica Sm.
 Syzygium smithii (Poir.) 
 Nied.
Lilly Pilly
Leaves
Mauritius
Modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes.
Quercetin-3-O-galactoside (hyperoside), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin), quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catech
[293, 294]

E. fasciculata Wall.
Not signalized
Leaves
Mauritius
Modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes.
Quercetin-3-O-galactoside (hyperoside), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin), quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catech.
procyanidin B2 dimer and (-)-epicatechin
[293]

E. orbiculata Lam.
Not signalized
Leaves
Mauritius
Modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes.
Quercetin-3-O-galactoside (hyperoside), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin), quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catech.
quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin),
[293, 295]

E. pollicina 
 J.Gueho & A.J.Scott
Not signalized
Leaves
Mauritius
Modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes.
Quercetin-3-O-galactoside (hyperoside), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin), quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catech.
(-)-epicatechin gallate
[293, 296]

Monimiastrum acutisepalum 
 J. Gueho & A.J. Scott.
Not signalized
Leaves
Mauritius
Modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes.
Quercetin-3-O-galactoside (hyperoside), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin), and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin).
(+)-catechin
[293–295]

M. globosum 
 J.Gueho & A.J.Scott
Not signalized
Leaves
Mauritius
Modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes.
Quercetin-3-O-galactoside (hyperoside), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin), and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin).
(-)-epicatechin gallate
[293]

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) 
 Merr. & L.M.Perry
Clove bud
Dried flowers
Buds
Madagascar
Sudan
Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities.
Used to treat tooth ache and throat inflammation.
Eugenol
Methyleugenol
[23, 297, 298]

S. coriaceum 
 J.Bosser & J.Guého
Bois de pomme

 Mauritius
Abilities to modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes.
Phenols and flavonoids: Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin) and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catechin, procyanidin B1 dimer, (-)-epicatechin gallate
[293]

S. glomeratum DC.
Bois de pomme
Leaves
 Mauritius
Abilities to modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes.
Used to treat boils, abscesses, fever and wounds and as expectorant.
Phenols and flavonoids: kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin) and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), procyanidin B1 dimer, (-)-epicatechin gallate, chlorogenic acid, (-)-epicatechin
[293]

S. guehoii
Not signalized

 Mauritius
Abilities to modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes.
Phenols and flavonoids: quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin) and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catechin, chlorogenic acid, procyanidin B2 dimer
[293]

S. mauritianum 
 J.Gueho & A.J.Scott
Not signalized
Leaves
 Mauritius
Abilities to modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes.
Phenols and flavonoids: quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin) and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catechin, chlorogenic acid
[293]

S. petrinense 
 J.Bosser & J.Guého
Not signalized

 Mauritius
Abilities to modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes.
Phenols and flavonoids: quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin) and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), procyanidin B1 dimer, chlorogenic acid
[293]

S. venosum (Lam.) 
 J.Gueho & A.J.Scott
Not signalized

 Mauritius
Abilities to modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes.
Phenols and flavonoids: quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin) and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catechin, procyanidin B2 dimer
[293, 295, 299]

Oleaceae

Olea europaea 
 subsp africana (Mill.)P.S. Green
African wild olive
Leaves
 South Africa
Potent antioxidant activity.
Used as eye lotions and tonics, lower blood pressure, improve kidney function and deal with sore throats. The early Cape settlers used the fruits to treat diarrhoea
Oleuafricein (mixture of oleanolic acid and ursolic acids), Triterpenoids and oleoropein.
[84, 300, 301]

Pedaliaceae

Harpagophytum procumbens DC.
ex Meissner
Devil’s claw
Root
South Africa
Native to the Kalahari Desert of southern Africa, Namibia and
Botswana.
Anti-inflammatory and ability to inhibit the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide by suppression of NF-kappaB activation.
Used for pain, muscular tension, osteoarthritis, degenerative rheumatism or painful arthrosis and tendonitis as well as tonic for loss of appetite and dyspeptic complaints.
Roots contain iridoid glycosides mainly harpagoside.
Other constituents are flavones and flavonols kaempferol, and luteolin.
[302–312]

Piperaceae

Piper guineense 
 Schum. & Thonn.
West African black pepper
Bush pepper
Ikom, Amana
kakwale iyeyeh ashoesie
taquale Meshoro
Fruit, seed and leaf
Ghana, West Africa
Nigeria
Cameroon
Antioxidant activity.
Volatile oil components-monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, terpenoids, lignans and sterols.
[313–316]

Podocarpaceae

Podocarpus species
Podocarpus 
 elongates   Podocarpus 
 falcatus, 
 Podocarpus henkelii 
 and Podocarpus latifolius

Leaves and young stems
Eastern and Southern Africa
These species are used to treat fevers, asthma, coughs, cholera, chest complaints, arthritis, rheumatism, painful joints and venereal diseases
Diterpenoids, bioflavonoids and Totarol
[317]

Ranunculaceae

Nigella sativa L.
Black cumin
Seed
African countries in the Mediterranean region
Antioxidant potentials through scavenging ability of different free radicals including the superoxide anion radical, inhibition of lipid peroxidation, and protection of liver against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver fibrosis in rabbits
Used to treat diarrhoea, asthma, and as gastroprotective agent.
Oil: Thymoquinone
[29–31, 318, 319]

Rosaceae

Crataegus monogyna Jacq.
Hawthorn, May Blossom, May Day Flower, White Thorn.
Fresh vegetative and reproductive organs
Mauritius, Northern Africa
Antioxidant activities.
Used for its neuro- and cardiosedative actions.
Polyphenols: (proanthocyanidin, flavonoid, anthocyanin, (-)-epicatechin, procyanidin B2, chlorogenic acid).
Flavonoids:quercetin and quercetrin, glycosides, proanthocyanidins, anthocynaidins, saponins, tannins, and cratetegin
Also, Vitamin C.
[320–323]

Leucosidea sericea

Leaf, bark and roots
Southern Africa
Antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties
Phenolics, alkaloids and saponins
[210]

Pygeum africanum Hook. f.
African plum tree
Red Stinkwood
Bark
South Africa
Anti-inflammatory.
Used to treat against benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatitis
14% triterpenes (urolic acids, oleanolic acid, crataegolic acid), 0.5% n-docosanol
Phytosterol (β-sitosterol, β-sitosterone, Campesterol
[188, 324–327]

Rubiaceae

Crossopteryx febrifuga Benth.
Roger Blench
“rima jogoo-hi/je”
Seeds
Leaf and roots
Mali
Nigeria
Radical scavenging and lipoxygenase inhibition activities.
Used to treat fever and various respiratory diseases
Flavonoids
[328–330]

Rutaceae

Agathosma betulina (Berg.) Pillans.
Round-leaf buchu
Leaves,
stems
 South Africa
Hydroxyl radical ion scavenging ability.
Used for stomach problems, kidney and urinary track diseases.
Essential oils and flavonoids
[188, 331, 332]

A. crenulata (L.) 
 Pillans
Oval-leaf 
 buchu
Leaves,
stems
 South Africa
Anti-inflammatory activity.
Used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatitis, diabetes, inflammation of the colon, gums, and mucous membranes. Leaves chewed to relieve stomach complaints.
Essential oils and flavonoids
[84, 188, 331, 332]

Fagara zanthoxyloides Lam.
xeti, xe
Wô
Roots, root-bark
Cameroon, Uganda
Antioxidant activity.
Used to treat gingivitis, toothache, urinary and venereal diseases, rheumatism and lumbago, malaria and other infections.
Phenylethanoid derivative, lignans and fagaronine
[333–336]

Sapindaceae

Dodonaea viscosa 
 Jacq.
 Synonyms: Dodonaea angustifolia L. f.;
Ptelea viscosa L.
Umusasa
Leaves
Rwanda
Anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting the synthesis of prostaglandin (PG) E(2).
Used to treat rheumatism, skin infections, diarrhea, stomachaches, pains of hepatic and splenic origin, uterine colic. It is also used as an antipruritic in skin rashes and for the treatment of some throat, dermatitis and hemorrhoids.
Quercetin, isorhamnetin
[337–341]

Xanthorrhoeaceae

Aloe ferox Mill.
Bitter aloe or Cape aloe
Leaves
South Africa, Lesotho
A. ferox gel contains at least 130 medicinal agents with anti-inflammatory, analgesic, calming, antiseptic, antiviral, antiparasitic and anticancer effects
Chromones, anthraquinones, anthrone, anthrone-C-glycosides, and other phenolic compounds
Barbaloin
[9]

Zingiberaceae

Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Schweinf.) B.L. Burtt.
Wild ginger
Natal ginger
African Ginger
Rhizome
South Africa
Anti-inflammatory activity through cyclooxygenase inhibitory (prostaglandin-synthetase inhibition), activity.
Used to treat Coughs, colds, asthma.
Sesquiterpenoid
[188, 264, 342]

Table 2: Medicinal plants with confirmed antioxidant activity or medicinal plants that contain compounds that are not known to have antioxidant activity.

Family and plant name
Vernacular name
Plant part
Country/area
Medicinal use and/or experimental validation
Compounds isolated
Reference

Acanthaceae

Barleria species 
 B. albostellata, 
 B. greenii, 
 B. prionitis

Leaves, twigs and roots
South Africa
Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities
Not identified
[212, 213]

Hypoestes rosea Decne.
Not signalized
Leaf extract
Nigeria
Anti-inflammatory activity due in part to its ability to inhibit NF-kappaB activation through direct inhibition of IkappaB kinase (IKK).
Diterpene: Hypoestoxide (a bicyclo [9,3,1] pentadecane)
[380, 381]

Aizoaceae

Glinus lotoides L.
“Mettere”
Hairy carpet -weed
Seeds
Cameroon
Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda, Egypt.
Used to treat cardiovascular and gastrointestinal system.
Three flavonoids: apigenin-7-O-glucoside, isovitexin, and luteolin-7-O-glucoside
Three isoflavonoids:
5,7,2′,4′-tetrahydroxy-6-(3,3-dimethylallyl)isoflavone,
5,7,4′-trihydroxy -6,3′-di-(3,3-dimethylallyl)isoflavone, and 5,7,2′,4′-tetrahydroxy-6,3′-di-(3,3-dimethylallyl) isoflavone.
[290, 382–386]

G. oppositifolius (L.) Aug. DC.
Balasa
Whole plant
Mali
Antioxidant and radical scavenging abilities.
kaempferol 3-O-galactopyranoside
[387, 388]

Aloaceae

Aloe claviflora Burch.
Kraal aloe

South Africa
Free radical scavenging and moderate inhibition in lipid peroxidation.
Used as a purgative.
Not identified
[35]

A. maculata 
 Forssk.
(=A. saponaria)
“Yellow Form”
Tiger Aloe, Soap Aloe

South Africa
Free radical scavenging and moderate inhibition in lipid peroxidation.
Used as a purgative.
Not identified
[35]

A. thraskii Baker
Dune aloe

South Africa
Free radical scavenging and moderate inhibition in lipid peroxidation.
Used as a purgative.
Not identified
[35]

Anacardiaceae

Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst
Marula
Stem-bark

Anti-inflammatory activity.
Used to treat diabetes, tonsillitis, snake bite and also diarrhoea.
Not identified
[389]

Annonaceae

Enantia chlorantha Oliver
Erenbavbogo, Mföl Muamba
Root, stem-bark
Nigeria
Anti-inflammatory activity.
Used to treat ulcers and leprous spots wounds. Bark sap is taken as decoction against diarrhoea.
Not identified
[390–393]

Uvaria afzelii Sc. Elliot
Pareho-houon, Bahie oulin
Leaves, roots and stem-bark
Ivory Coast
Used as for its antiparasitic activity
Anthocyanins and other flavonoids
[394–396]

U. chamae P.Beauv.
Okandii
Anweda tsoGa
Stem, bark
Leaves, root
Ivory Coast Nigeria

Used for its antiplasmodial activity.
Polyphenols
[12, 397, 398]

Apocynaceae

Picralima nitida Th. & H. Dur.
Ghana: Kpetepetetso, Kanwini,
Kanwinu
Cameroon: motoko-toko
Seeds Stem-bark
Ghana
Anti-inflammatory activity.
Used for its analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties.
Not identified
[168, 399–402]

Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel.
Asofeyeje, adapopo
Mwanje
Root-bark
Ghana
Anti-inflammatory activity.
Used for its analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory activities. Also to treat scabies, high blood pressure, fever and snakebites.
Not identified
[56]

Araliaceae

Cussonia barteri Seem.
Cabbage tree
Leaves
Roots
Nigeria, Mali
Antioxidant and radical scavenging abilities. Inhibitory activity on 5-lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase-1.
Not identified
[357, 403]

Arecaceae

Hyphaene thebaica Mart.
Not signalized
Shell
Niger
Antioxidant activity
Not identified
[11]

Asclepiadaceae

Calotropis procera (Aiton)
W.T.Aiton
African milk weed
Sodom apple/Giant milkweed/
Latex
Ethiopia
Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities.
Not identified
[404]

Swallow-wort/Auricula tree.
Sudan
Used to control dermal fungal infections and for pain relief. Latex used against scorpion stings and roots for jaundice.

Gongronema latifolium Benth.
Not signalized
Leaves
Nigeria
Antioxidant activity
Not identified
[405–407]

Leptadenia hastata Decne.
Not signalized
Leaves
Niger
Antioxidant activity
Not identified
[11]

Pachycarpus rigidus E. Mey.
Not signalized
Bark
South Africa
Antioxidant activity.
Used to treat pain in the joints
Not identified
[188]

Asparagaceae

Asparagus virgatus Baker
Refug. Bot. (Saunders)
Broom asparagus
Bark
South Africa
Antioxidant activity.
Used to treat syphilis, anthelmintic
Not identified
[35]

Asteraceae

Ageratum conyzoides L.
Inkuruba
Herbe à bouc
Whole plant
Central Africa, Rwanda Ethiopia
Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Used to treat mastitis and urogenital infections and to dress wounds. Also as a gastroprotective.
Not identified
[12, 408, 409]

Artemisia herba-alba
Desert wormwood, shih
Aerial parts
Algeria, Tunisia, Israel, Morocco
Herbal tea from A. herba-alba has been used as analgesic, antibacterial, antispasmodic, and hemostatic agents in folk medicines
Camphor (17–33%), α-thujone (7–28%), and chrysanthenone (4–19%)
[9]

Artemisia judaica L.
Wormwood
Leaves
Egypt
Used for gastrointestinal disorders
Flavonoids with antioxidant activities.
[410]

Callilepis laureola 
 DC.
Ox-eye daisy, Impila
Tuber
South Africa
Antioxidant and radical scavenging activities.
Used to induce fertility, impotence, tapeworm infestations but induces hepatic and renal tubular necrosis.
Not identified
[188, 411, 412]

Psiadia punctulata (DC) Vatke
Mwendathigo
Leaf exudate
Kenya, East Africa
Used to treat colds, fevers and abdominals pains.
Flavones: 5,7-dihydroxy-2′,3′,4′,5′-tetramethoxyflavone, 5,4′-dihydroxy-7,2′,3′,5′-tetramethoxyflavone, 5,7,4′-trihydroxy-2′,3′,5′-trimethoxyflavone, 5-hydroxy-7,2′,3′,4′,5′-pentamethoxyflavone and 5,7,3′-trihydroxy-2′,4′,5′-trimethoxyflavone.
[359, 413]

Vernonia kotschyana Sch. Bip. ex Walp.
Buaye
Leaves, roots
Mali
Anti-inflammatory activity.
Used to treat gastritis, gastro duodenal ulcers, as an aid to ameliorate digestion and as a wound healing remedy. Immunomodulating activities.
Not identified
[187, 414]

Bignoniaceae

Kigelia pinnata DC.
Suasage tree,
Cucumber tree
Root
fruit
Egypt
Used as dressing for ulcers and used to treat rheumatism
Anti-inflammatory activity
Naphthoquinones: kigelinone, isopinnatal, dehydro-alpha-lapachone, and lapachol and the phenylpropanoids: p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid (root), kigelinone and caffeic acid (fruits).
[415, 416]

Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC.
Pink tecoma
Pink trumpet tree
Leaves
Stem-bark
Nigeria
Used to treat arthritis.
Tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids, quinones and traces of saponins
[107]

Crescentia cujete L.
Calabash
Gourd tree
Leaves
Stem-bark
Nigeria
Used as purgative and to treat coughs.
Tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids, quinones and traces of saponins
[107]

Bombacaceae

Bombax costatum Pellegrin & Vuillet
Not signalized
Fruit
Niger
Antioxidant activity
Not identified
[11]

Boraginaceae

Heliotropium 
 indicum L.
Nonsikou
Leaves
Mali
Moderate antioxidant activity.
Used for wound healing and for ocular infection.
Not identified
[417–419]

Buddlejaceae

Buddleja 
 madagascariensis Lam.
Butterfly-bush
Leaves
Egypt
Used to treat coughs, asthma, and bronchitis.
Flavonoids triglycosides: hesperetin and diosmetin 7-O (2′′,6′′- di-O-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl)-beta-D-glucopyranosides
[420]

Caesalpiniaceae

Cassia fistula L.
Golden shower tree
Fruit
Mauritius
Laxative.
Phenolics and flavonoids
[368]

Canellaceae

Warburgia salutaris (Bertol F.) Chiov.
Pepper-bark tree
Isibaha
Bark
South Africa
Antioxidant and radical scavenging activities.
Used to treat coughs, stomach ulcers, malaria, rheumatism, liver and venereal diseases
Not identified
[188]

W. ugandensis Sprague
Fever tree
Stem-bark
Leaves
Kenya
Ethiopia
Used to treat stomach ache, chest pains, malaria, toothache and coughs.
Flavonol glycoside Kaempferol, kaempferol 3-rhamnoside, kaempferol
3-Rhamnoside-7,4′-digalactoside and Quercetin: 3-Rhamnosyl(1→6[glucosyl(1→2)glucoside]-7-rhamnoside, kaempferide 3-O-beta-xylosyl (1→2)-beta-glucoside, kaempferol 3-O-alpha-rhamnoside-7,4′-di-O-beta-galactoside, kaempferol 3,7,4′-tri-O-beta-glucoside, kaempferol 3-rutinoside, myricetin, quercetin 3-rhamnoside, kaempferol 3-arabinoside, quercetin 3-glucoside, quercetin, kaempferol 3-rhamnoside-4′-galactoside, myricetin 3-galactoside and kaempferol 3-glucoside.
[421–424]

Capparaceae

Boscia senegalensis (Pers.) Lam. ex Poiret
Senegal Boscia
Fruit hull
Roots and leaf
Mali
Niger
Antioxidant activity.
Used to treat diarrhoea, cholera, tachycardia, pectoral pain.
Not identified
[12]

Gynandropsis gynandra Merr.
Not signalized
Leaves
Niger
Antioxidant activity
Not identified
[11]

Celastraceae

Salacia leptoclada Tul.
Lemon rope
Root
South Africa
Antioxidant activity.
Used as an aphrodisiac.
Not identified
[188]

Chenopodiaceae

Salsola somalensis N.E.Br.
Dingetegna
Roots
Ethiopia
Used as taenicide.
Nine new isoflavones, 5,3′-dihydroxy-6,7,2′-trimethoxy isoflavone, 5,8,3′-trihydroxy-7,2′-dimethoxyisoflavone, 8,3′-dihydroxy-5,7,2′-trimethoxyisoflavone, 5,6,3′-trihydroxy-7,2′-dimethoxyisoflavone, 6,7,3′ -trihydroxy-5,2′-dimethoxyisoflavone, 5,8,3′-trihydroxy -2′-methoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyisoflavone, or 5,6,3′-trihydroxy-2′-methoxy-7,8-methylenedioxyisoflavone, 3′-hydroxy-5,6,7,2′-tetramethoxyisoflavone, 7,3′-dihydroxy -5,6,2′-trimethoxyisoflavone and 6,3′-dihydroxy-5,7,2′-trimethoxyisoflavone.
[425]

Clusiaceae

Psorospermum guineense Hochr.
Karidjakouma
Leaves
Mali
Antioxidant activity.
Used as diuretic and febrifuge.
Not identified

Combretaceae

Pteleopsis suberosa Engl. & Diels.
Girga
Stem-bark
Mali
Antioxidant properties.
Used to treat gastric and duodenal ulcers.
Not identified
[329, 426]

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea dumetorum Th.Dur.et Schinz
Cluster yam
African bitter yam
Trifoliate yam
Tubers
Nigeria
Tropical West Africa
Antioxidant and hypolipidemic activities.
Used to treat diabetes.
Not identified
[152, 153, 427]

Ebenaceae

Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern) F. White
Giant diospyros
Leaves, roots
Root-bark
Mali
Radical scavengers and lipoxygenase inhibitors.
Not identified
[357]

Euclea divinorum Hiern
Diamond-leaved euclea
Magic guarri
Roots
Ethiopia
Used to treat venereal diseases, chest pains, pneumonia, internal body pains, stomach-ache and diarrhea. Chewed roots ease toothache.
Flavonoids
[428]

Euphorbiaceae

Acalypha hispida Burm. f.
Chenille plant
Red-hot cattail
Leaves
Flowers
Nigeria
Used as anti-bacterial agent.
Gallic acid and Quercetin 3-O-rutinoside and kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside
The main anthocyanin is the known cyanidind 3-O-(2-O-galloylgalactose, but a minor pigment (5%) is the new cyanidin Cy 3-O-(2-O-galloyl-6-O-rhamnosylgalactoside
[228, 429]

A. wilkesiana 
 Müll. Arg.
Copper leaf
Leaves
Nigeria
Used to treat ailments of microbial origin
Gallic acid and Quercetin 3-O-rutinoside and kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside
[430]

Croton gratissimus Burch.
Lavender fever-berry
Bark
South Africa
Used as purgative for abdominal disorders, fever. The charred and powdered bark is used to treat bleeding gums
Flavonoids.
[188]

Euphorbia hirta L.
Kasandasanda
Ufu idire
Whole plant
Leaves
Ethiopia
Used to treat diarrhoea and asthma.
Flavonoid: quercitrin
Flavonol: Euphorbianin (3-(6′′′-Acetylglucosyl) (1→3)galactoside)
[12, 431–433]

Fabaceae

Acacia caffra (Thunb.) Wild.
Hook-thorn
Cat-thorn
Bark
South Africa
Used to treat diarrhoea and as emetics.
Proanthocyanidins: oritin-(4alpha→5)-epioritin-4beta-ol, ent-epioritin-(4alpha→5)-epioritin-4beta-ol and epioritin-(4beta→5)-epioritin-4alpha-ol and ent-oritin-(4beta→5)-epioritin-4alpha-ol.
[434–436]

A. galpinii Burtt Davy.
Monkey-thorn
Bark
South Africa
Used to treat diarrhoea.
Proanthocyanidins: oritin-(4alpha→5)-epioritin-4beta-ol, ent-epioritin-(4alpha→5)-epioritin-4beta-ol and epioritin-(4beta→5)-epioritin-4alpha-ol and ent-oritin-(4beta→5)-epioritin-4alpha-ol.
[434, 435]

Afzelia bella 
 Harms
Pretty Afzelia
Stem-bark
Ivory Coast
Used to treat skin diseases and cough.
An acylated dihydroflavonol glycoside identified as 2R,3R-trans-aromadendrin-7-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside-6′′-(4′′-hydroxy-2′′-m ethylene flavonoids:butanoate), along with five known flavonoids and the lignan glycoside (+)-isolariciresinol 9-O-xyloside.
[437]

Bolusanthus speciosus 
 Harms
Tree Wisteria
Root
Stem-bark
South Africa, Botswana, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Zambia.
Used to treat abdominal pains, emetism and tuberculosis.
Three new flavonoids from the root: 5,7,4′-trihydroxy-6-[1-hydroxy-2-methylbuten-2-yl]isoflavone (isogancaonin C), 7,2′-dihydroxy-4′-methoxyisoflav-3-ene (bolusanthin III), 6,6′-dihydroxy-4′-methoxy-2-arylbenzofuran (bolusanthin IV) in addition to eight known derrone, medicarpan, genistein, wighteone, lupiwighteone, gancaonin C, 7-hydroxy-4′-methoxyisoflavone and 7,3′-dihydroxy-4′-methoxyisoflavone flavonoids
2R,3R-Aromadendrin 7-(6-[4-hydroxy-2-methylenebutanoyl]glucoside).
Two new isoflavonoids from the combined ethyl acetate/methanolic extracts of the stem bark of Bolusanthus speciosus have been established as 4,7,2′-trihydroxy-4′methoxyisoflavanol (1) and 5,7,3′,4′-tetrahydroxy-5′-(2-epoxy-3-methylbutyl)isoflavanone (2). Five other known isoflavonoids, 5,7,3′-trihydroxy-4′-methoxy-5′-γ, γ-dimethylallyisoflavanone, 5,7,2′trihydroxy-4′-methoxy-6,5′-di(γ, γ-dimethyla)isoflavanone, 5,7,2′,4′-tetrahydroxy-8,5′-di(γ, γ-dimethylallyl)isoflavanone, 5,7,2′,4′-tetrahydroxy-8,3′-di(γ, γ-dimethylallyl)-isoflavanone, and derrone.
[67, 358, 438]

Crotalaria lanceolata E. Mey.
Lanceleaf rattlebox
Root
South Africa
Antioxidant activity.
Used to treat coughs.
Not identified
[188]

Derris trifoliata Lour.
Common derris
Root-bark.
Stem-bark. Seeds.
Kenya
Used for prevention of cancer.
Entire plant is used as stimulant, antispasmodic. Bark is used as an alternative in rheumatism.
An isoflavonoid derivative, named 7a-O-methyldeguelol, a modified rotenoid with an open ring-C, representing a new sub-class of isoflavonoids (the sub-class is here named as rotenoloid). In addition, the known rotenoids, rotenone, deguelin and alpha-toxicarol. In addition, two unusual rotenoid derivatives, a rotenoloid (named 7a-O-methyl-12a-hydroxydeguelol) and a spirohomooxarotenoid (named spiro-13-homo-13-oxaelliptone).
In addition a rare natural chromanone (6,7-dimethoxy-4-chromanone) and the known rotenoids rotenone, tephrosin and dehydrodeguelin were identified. Also one new rotenoid, 6-alpha,12-alpha-12a-hydroxyelliptone.
[438–441]

Entada africana Guill. & Perr.
Samanere
Leaves
Mali
Niger

Antioxidant properties.
Protective against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage.
Used to treat fever and various respiratory diseases.
Not identified
[329, 357, 442, 443]

Erythrina abyssinica Lam.
Red hot poker tree
Stem bark
Root bark
Kenya
Used to treat malaria.
New isoflav-3-ene [7,4′-dihydroxy-2′,5′-dimethoxyisoflav-3-ene] in addition to the known compounds erycristagallin, licoagrochalcone A, octacosyl ferulate and triacontyl 4-hydroxycinnamate were identified. A new chalcone, 2′,3,4,4′-tetrahydroxy-5-prenylchalcone (trivial name 5-prenylbutein) and a new flavanone, 4′,7-dihydroxy-3′-methoxy-5′-prenylflavanone (trivial name, 5-deoxyabyssinin II) along with known flavonoids
[444, 445]

E. burttii Baker f.
Not signalized
Stem-bark
Root-bark
Kenya
Used as antifungal and antibacterial agent.
Two new flavanones: 5,7-
dihydroxy-4′-methoxy-3′,5′-di-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)flavanone (trivial name, abyssinone V-4′-methyl ether) and 5,7-dihydroxy-4′-methoxy-3′-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbut-1-enyl)-5′-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)favanone (trivial name, burttinone). A new isoflavone, 5,2′,4′-trihydroxy-7-methoxy-6-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)isoflavone (trivial name, 7-O-methylluteone) and a new flavanone, 5,7-dihydroxy-4′-methoxy-3′-(3-methylbutadienyl)-5′-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)flavanone, 3 isoflavonoids (8-prenylluteone, 3-O-methylcalopocarpin and genistein)
Three isoflav-3-enes, 7,4′-dihydroxy-2′-methoxy-6-(1′′,1′′-dimethylallyl)isoflav-3-ene (trivial name, burttinol-A), 4′-hydroxy-2′-methoxy-2′′,2′′-dimethylpyrano[5′′,6′′:8,7]isoflav-3-ene (trivial name, burttinol-B), 7,4′-dihydroxy-2′-methoxy-8-(3′′,3′′-dimethylallyl)isoflav-3-ene (trivial name, burttinol-C), and 2-arylbenzofuran, 6,4′-dihydroxy-2′-methoxy-5-(1′′,1′′-dimethylallyl)-2-arylbenzofuran (trivial name, burttinol-D).
[446–449]

E. eriotricha Harms.
Not signalized
Root-bark
Cameroon
Anti-microbial activity
A novel isoflavanone, named eriotrichin B, one new prenylated flavanone, named sigmoidin L, one flavanone (sigmoidin A), four isoflavones (scandenone, 6,8-diprenylgenistein), flemiphilippinin B and 8-prenyldaidzein
[450, 451]

E. sacleuxii Hua
Kinyarwanda
Bark
Kenya
Used to treat fever, malaria and leprosy.

Two new isoflavanones, (R)-5,7-dihydroxy-2′,4′,5′-trimethoxyisoflavanone (trivial name, (R)-2,3-dihydro-7-demethylrobustigenin) and (R)-5-hydroxy-2′,4′,5′-trimethoxy-2′′,2′′-dimethylpyrano[5′′,6′′:6,7]isoflavan one (trivial name, (R)-saclenone)
[452, 453]

Millettia ferruginea 
 (Hochst.) Baker
Birbira
Sotallo
Sari
Bark
Ethiopia
Used for skin disorders.
O-Geranylated and O-prenylated flavonoids, C-prenylated isoflavones
Geranylated and prenylated flavonoids
[199]

M. dura Dunn.
Runyankore Uumuyogoro
Stem-bark
Rwanda
Uganda
Used for blood parasitism
Flavonoids: A new isoflavone (7,3′-dimethoxy-4′,5′-methylenedioxyisoflavone) and three known isoflavones [isoerythrinin A 4′-(3-methylbut-2-enyl) ether, isojamaicin and nordurlettone].
[454, 455]

Ostryoderris stuhlmannii (Taub.) Dunn ex Harms
Mnyinga
Leaves
Mali
Antioxidant activity.
Used to treat painful menstruation, peritonitis, gastritis, colitis and gingivitis.
Not identified
[357]

Piliostigma reticulatum (DC.) Hochst
Kalga
Leaves
Bark
Nigeria
High antioxidant activity.
Used to treat wounds, bronchitis, malaria, sterility (leaves) and diarrhoea and dysentery (bark).
Not identified
[240]

Sesbania pachycarpa DC.
Not signalized
Leaves
Niger
Antioxidant activity
Not identified
[11]

Tephrosia polyphylla (Chiov.) J.B. Gillett
Hoary pea
Aerial part
Kenya

Flavonoids
[456]

T. deflexa Baker
Hoary pea
Aerial part
Senegal

Flavonoids: Rutin 1 – quercetine 3-O-a-L-rhamnopyrannosyl (1-6) glucopyrannose – and morin 2 – 3,5,7,2′,4′-pentahydroxyflavone.
[457]

T. albifoliolis 
 A.Nongonierma & T.Sarr
Hoary pea
Aerial part
Senegal

Flavonoids: Rutin 1 – quercetine 3-O-a-L-rhamnopyrannosyl (1-6) glucopyrannose – and morin 2 – 3,5,7,2′,4′-pentahydroxyflavone.
[457]

Taverniera abyssinica A.
Rich.
Dingetegna
Root
Ethiopia
Used to treat fever, discomfort and pain, stomach ache.
Four isoflavonoids
[290, 458, 459]

Flacourtiaceae

Flacourtia flavescens Willd.
Not signalized
Leaves
Mali
Antioxidant activity.
Not identified
[357]

Geraniaceae

Pelargonium reniforme Spreng.
Xhosa (Umckaloabo)
Root
Southern Africa
Used to treat liver disorders, laxative, purgative, cancer, and pulmonary disorders
Polyphenols: catechol (3′4′-dihydroxy) element in the B-ring, which possesses higher antioxidant activity than ascorbic acid.
[362, 460, 461]

Gunneraceae

Gunnera perpensa L.
River pumpkin
Ugobho
Root
Leaves and stem.
South Africa
Decreased lucigenin enhanced chemiluminescence.
Used to treat wounds and psoriasis.
Not identified
[21, 462]

Irvingiaceae

Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O’Rorke) Baill.
Bush mango
Ono
Seeds
Nigeria
Cameroon
Antioxidant activity.
Used as laxative and for stomach and kidney pain. Shown to lower total cholesterol.
Not identified
[12, 313, 463]

Lamiaceae

Leonotis leonurus (L.)R.Br.
Wild dagga
Leaves
South Africa
Anti-inflammatory properties.
Used to treat headaches, dysentery, coughs and colds.
Not identified
[13]

Salvia stenophylla Burch. ex Benth.
Sage
Leaves
South Africa
Solvent extracts: antioxidant activity but poor anti-inflammatory properties.
Essential oils: anti-inflammatory activity but poor anti-oxidant activity.
Used against fever and digestive disorders.
Not identified
[360]

S. repens Burch.
ex Benth.
Not signalized
Leaves
South Africa
Solvent extracts: antioxidant activity but poor anti-inflammatory properties.
Essential oils: anti-inflammatory activity but poor anti-oxidant activity.
Used for fevers and digestive disorders.
Not identified
[360]

S. runcinata L.f.
Not signalized
Leaves
South Africa
Solvent extracts: antioxidant activity but poor anti-inflammatory properties.
Essential oils: anti-inflammatory activity but poor anti-oxidant activity.
Used against fever and digestive disorders.
Not identified
[360]

Loranthaceae

Tapinanthus globiferus Tiegh.
Not signalized
Leaves
Niger
Antioxidant activity
Not identified
[11]

Malvacea

Adansonia digitata (L.)
English: baobab, Afrikaans: kremetart, Hausa: kuka, Sotho: seboi, Tswana: mowana, Tsonga: shimuwu, Venda: muvhuyu, Arabic: tabladi
Leaves, root, bark and fruits
All over Africa, but limited trees in Central Africa
Antioxidant, analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of extracts
L-ascorbic acid
[36, 464]

Mimosaceae

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.
East Indian walnut, frywood, koko, lebbek, lebbek tree, rain tree, raom tree, silver raintree, siris rain tree, siris tree, soros-tree, woman’s tongue.
Leaves and bark
Egypt
Used to treat asthma and skin disorders (bark) and eye diseases and dysentery (leaves)
Two new tri-O-glycoside flavonols: kaempferol and quercetin 3-O-alpha-rhamnopyranosyl(1→6)-beta-glucopyranosyl(1→6)-beta- galactopyranosides
[465]

Moraceae

Dorstenia angusticornis Engl.
Not signalized
Twigs
Cameroon
Used for snakebite and to treat infection, rheumatism, headache, cough and stomach pain.

Two novel diprenylated chalcones: 3,5′-di-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-4,2′,4′-trihydroxychalcone, 3, 4-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)-3′-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-2′,4′-dihydroxych alcone and the known stipulin.
3-(2-Hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-5′-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-4,2′,4′-trihydroxy chalcone and the known compounds: gancaonin Q, paratocarpins C, F, and lupeol.
[67, 278]

D. dinklagei Engl.
Not signalized
Twigs
Cameroon
Used for snakebite and to treat infection, rheumatism, headache, cough and stomach pain.

Three prenylated flavonoids, dinklagins A, B and C identified, respectively, as
(dinklagin B): (+)-5,4′,5′′ξ-Trihydroxy-6′′,6′′-dimethyldihydropyranol[2′′,3′′:7,6]flavone.
(dinklagin C): (+)-6-(2ξ-Hydroxy-3-methyl-3-butenyl)-5,7,4′-trihydroxyflavone
(-)-6-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-7-hydroxy-6′′′, 6′′′-dimethylchromeno-(4′,3′,2′′′,3′′′)-flavanone, (+)-5,4′,5′′ξ-trihydroxy-6′′,6′′-dimethylchromano-(7,6,2′′,3′′)-flavone and (+)6-(2ξ-hydroxy-3-methyl-3-butenyl)-5,7,4′-trihydroxyflavone.
6-prenylapigenin, 4-hydroxylonchocarpin, stipulin and 5,4′-dihydroxy-6′′,6′′-dimethylchromano-(7,6,2′′,3′′)-flavone.
[67, 226]

D. elliptica Bur.
Not signalized
Twigs
Botswana
Used to treat eye infection.
Monoprenylated flavan
[466]

D. Kameruniana. Engl.
Not signalized
Leaves
Botswana
Used for snakebite and to treat infection, rheumatism, headache, cough and stomach pain.

Two novel favonoids: 6,7-(2,2-dimethylchromano)-5,4′-dihydroxyfavone and 3,4-,4′,5′-bis-(2,2-dimethylchromano)-2′-hydroxychalcone together with the known 6-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)apigenin and two chalcones (E)-1-[2,4-dihydroxy-3-[3-methylbut-2-enyl]phenyl]-3-[4-hydroxyphenyl]-prop-2-en-1-one and (E)1-[2,4-dihydroxy-5-[3-methylbut-2-enyl]phenyl]-3-[4-hydroxy-3-[3-methylbut-2-enyl]phenyl]-prop-2-en-1-one.
[467]

D. prorepens Engl.
Not signalized
Twigs
Botswana
Used for snakebite and to treat infection, rheumatism, headache, cough and stomach pain.
Digeranylated chalcone, 5,3′-(3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienyl)-3,4, 2′,4′-tetrahydroxychalcone.
4-Hydroxylonchocarpin
Chalcone: 3,4,2′,4′-Tetrahydroxy-5,3′-digeranylchalcone
[67, 468]

D. poinsettiifolia Engl.
Not signalized
Twigs
Botswana
Used for snakebite and to treat infection, rheumatism, headache, cough and stomach pain.

Grenylated and prenylated flavonoids. In addition, the flavone 5,7,4-trihydroxy-8-prenylflavone (licoflavone C), the chalcones 4,2′,4′-trihydroxy-3′-prenylchalcone (isobavachalcone) and isobavachromene, the triterpene butyrospermol, and the carotenoid lutein.
[67, 206, 289]

D. zenkeri Engl.
Not signalized
Twigs
Botswana
Used for snakebite and to treat infection, rheumatism, headache, cough and stomach pain.
3′,4′-(3-hydroxy-2,2-dimethyldihydropyrano)-4,2′-dihydroxychalcone and a bichalcone.
4-Hydroxylonchocarpin.
p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, dorsmanin A, 4,2′,4′-trihydroxychalcone and 4,2′,4′-trihydroxy-3′-prenylchalcone
Chalcones: 4,2′,5′′-Trihydroxy-6′′,6′′-dimethyldihydropyranol[2′′,3′′:4′,3′]chalcone
[67, 468]

Moringaceae

Moringa oleifera Lam.
Horse-radish tree
Drumstick
Moringo
Zakalanda
Root
West Africa
Zimbabwe
Anti-inflammatory activity.
Used as aphrodisiac and to treat asthma, gout and rheumatism.
Not identified
[469]

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.
Not signalized
Leaves
Egypt
Antioxidant activity
Not identified
[470]

Polygonaceae

Polygonum senegalense 
 Meisn.
Fotsimbarin’akoholahy
Leaves
Madagascar

Flavonoids: quercetin, kaempferol and luteolin and their glycosides such as dihydrochalcone glucoside and quercetin glycosides.
[413, 471]

Rumex abyssinicus Jacq.
Mekmeko
Leaves
N. Africa - Ethiopia
Anti-inflammatory properties
Used to treat itching, skin eczema and leprosy.
Flavonoids.
[337, 472]

R. nervosus Vahl.,
Alcgango
Dengogo
Leaves
Ethiopia
Anti-inflammatory properties.
Used to treat acne, wounds, eczema, typhus and as an ophthalmic antiseptic.
Not identified
[337]

Rubiaceae

Nauclea latifolia Smith
Pin Cushion Tree
Ìgíyàà
Leaves and root
Nigeria
Used as anthelmintic and to treat malaria, fever, stomachache and liver diseases.
Proanthocyanidins.
[12, 58, 473–475]

Solanaceae

Datura stramonium L.
Thorn-apple rwiziringa
Seeds
South Africa
Antioxidant activity.
Used to treat asthma, headaches and wounds.
Not identified
[188]

Tiliaceae

Grewia occidentalis L.
Cross-berry
Four-corner
Bark
South Africa
Antioxidant activity.
Used to treat bladder ailments, wounds, impotence and sterility, and to help in childbirth.
Not identified
[188]

Vahliaceae

Vahlia capensis (L.f) Thunb.
Vahlia of the Cape
Zimbabwe

Used to treat bacterial infections.
Kaempferol, quercetin, afzelin, astragalin, quercitrin, isoquercitrin, rutin, gallic acid, chiro-inositol, dulcitol, and a novel biflavonoid, VC-15B (vahlia biflavone)
[475]

Vitaceae

Cyphostemma natalitium (Szyszl.) J.v. d. Merwe
Tick-berry bush
Root
South Africa
Anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial agents with significant inhibition of COX-1
Not identified
[374]

Rhoicissus digitata Gilg. & Brandt
Wilde patatat
Roots, stems and leaves
South Africa
At high concentrations possessed some prooxidative properties. Anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial agents with significant inhibition of COX-1.
Used to facilitate delivery.
Not identified
[364, 374]

R. rhomboidea 
 (E. Meyer ex Harvey) Planchon
Glossy forest grape
Roots, stems and leaves
South Africa
Mozambique
Radical scavenging activity, inhibitory effect on xanthine oxidase activity, prevention of lipid peroxidation and damage to DNA and ability to chelate iron. Anti-inflammatory through inhibition of COX-1.
Not identified
[364, 374]

R. tomentosa (Lam.)
Wild & R.B.Drum.
Wild grape Forest Grape, Monkey rope,
Roots, stems and leaves
South Africa
Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities.
Anti-inflammatory through inhibition of COX-1.
Used to facilitate delivery.
Not identified
[364, 374]

R. tridentata (L.f.) Wild & Drum.
Bitter grape
Bushman’s grape
Isinwazi
Roots, stems and leaves
South Africa
: Venda
Radical scavenging activity, inhibitory effect on xanthine oxidase activity, prevention of lipid peroxidation and damage to DNA and ability to chelate iron. Anti-inflammatory through inhibition of COX-1.
Used to treat colds, infertility and stomach ailments.
Not identified
[364, 374, 476]

Many edible and culinary herbs and condiments were also included in these two tables as they were used in certain instances as medicinal herbs to treat diseases. These included fruits and seeds of Balanites aegyptiaca, leaves of Boscia senegalensis, leaves of Entada africana and seeds of Parkia biglobosa, from Niger [11], also leaves, seeds, and stem-bark of Mangifera indica from Benin and Burkina Faso [12, 13], leaves of Cynara scolymus from Ethiopia [14, 15], leaves of Aspalathus linearis from South Africa [16–21], leaves of Cinnamomum zeylanicum from Madagascar and Ethiopia [22–24], essential oils from the bark and leaves of Ravensara aromatica from Madagascar [23, 25], buds of Syzygium aromaticum from Madagascar [23], seeds of Trigonella foenumgraecum from Ethiopia and Morocco [26–28], and oils in seeds of Nigella sativa from African countries of the Mediterranean region [29–31].

2. Tests Used to Assess Antioxidant Activities of African Medicinal Plant Extracts

A variety of test systems were employed to assess the antioxidant properties of the medicinal plant extracts and compounds listed in Tables 1 and 2. A comprehensive list of the methods used in antioxidant activity determination, as well as their merits and demerits, has already been published [343–346]. The methods used in the determination of antioxidant activity of natural products and isolated compounds result in varied outcomes when the same samples are tested in different laboratories and by other researchers [347]. Furthermore, results of different methods cannot be correlated, as contradictory results are usually obtained. Hence, although several assays are available, none of them is capable of accurately and completely determining the antioxidant activity of a test substance because of the complex nature of the redox-antioxidant system in vivo (Figure 2). Based on this complexity, antioxidants are broadly classified as (i) inhibitors of free radical formation, (ii) free radical scavengers, (iii) cellular and tissue damage repairers, and (iv) signalling messengers [347].

Figure 2: Mechanism of antioxidant action in wounds.

The inhibition of free radical formation could protect against oxidative damage by suppressing the formation of active ROS/RNS. This typically involves reduction or inhibition of substrates required for free radical formation such as metal ions like iron (Fe) and copper (Cu). The sequestration of these metal ions by antioxidant compounds like ellagic acid and glutathione is known to suppress formation of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and other free radicals [348, 349]. Furthermore, increasing evidence suggests a relationship between metal overload and several chronic diseases through the induction of oxidative stress [350]. Therefore, inhibition of free radical formation using metal ions as targets could be useful therapeutically. Antioxidant assays designed for this purpose include the cupric and ferric reducing antioxidant power (CUPRAC/FRAP). These methods measure the ability of antioxidants to reduce cupric (Cu²⁺) and ferric (Fe³⁺) ions, respectively.

Another mechanism by which antioxidants act is through the suppression of oxidative stress by directly scavenging active free radicals. Most commonly reported antioxidant assays such as 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), 2,2′-diphenyl-p-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), total oxyradical scavenging capacity (TOSC), and total radical antioxidant parameter (TRAP) are focused on testing the ability to scavenge free radicals. Furthermore, there are diverse cellular antioxidant assays that assess the ability of antioxidant compounds and substances to protect cells against excessive free radical generation. Such assays involve the use of a fluorescent compound such as 2,7-dichlorofluoroscein to determine the ability of test samples to quench intracellularly generated free radicals and inhibit radical formation and lipid peroxidation [345].

There are also numerous reports of the ability of antioxidants to repair damaged tissues and improve healing. Topical application of kojic acid and deferiprone, two compounds with the ability to scavenge free radicals, enhanced healing of wounds in rats [351]. Also, the mitochondria-targeted antioxidant, 10-(6′-plastoquinonyl) decyltriphenylphosphonium, accelerated wound closure, stimulated epithelialization, granulation tissue formation, and vascularization, and lowered lipid peroxidation in mice [352]. Moreover, an antioxidant peptide (cathelicidin-OA1) promoted wound healing in a mouse model with full-thickness skin wounds, accelerated reepithelialization and granulation tissue formation by enhancing the recruitment of macrophages to the wound site, and induced cell proliferation and migration [353]. Some antioxidants have also been reported to contribute to healing by enhancing the activity of endogenous antioxidant compounds and enzymes. The induction of the nuclear factor E2-related factor 2-(Nrf2) mediated antioxidative pathway by a rhomboid family protein (RHBDF2) promoted healing of injured tissues, suggesting a relationship between antioxidant gene induction and healing [354]. Niconyl-peptide enhanced wound healing and protected against hydrogen peroxide-induced cell death by increasing the expression of Nrf2 expression in human keratinocytes [355].

The most common tests used to determine the antioxidant activity of samples included the assessment of the ability to scavenge free radicals such as DPPH, ABTS⁺ [16, 19, 35, 62, 85, 94, 98, 99, 139, 158, 175, 184, 187, 266, 282, 302, 356–364], or the hydroxyl radicals [79, 188, 267, 365, 366], as well as the hydroperoxyl radicals by the Briggs-Rauscher reaction [104]. The ability of the extracts to chelate metal ions was also determined as further indication of their ability to contribute in the reduction of free radicals such as the hydroxyl radical [114]. In addition, assessment of the ability of these medicinal plant extracts to protect against lipid peroxidation was also included, which in turn was measured by the malondialdehyde-thiobarbituric acid (MDA) test [320, 367], the modified thiobarbituric acid reactive species (TBARS) assay [18, 22], or conjugated diene formation [367]. Moreover, lipid peroxidation was assessed using the fluorescent probe, diphenyl-1-pyrenylphosphine (DPPP) [188], or using the inhibition of Cu(2+)-mediated oxidation of human low-density lipoprotein (LDL) [187, 367]. The ability of extracts to protect against damage to DNA using the Comet assay was also employed [114, 188].

The antioxidant capacity of the medicinal plant extracts was determined using either the TEAC or FRAP assays [11, 85, 302, 313, 321, 368]. The ability of extracts to modulate the gene expression of the antioxidant enzymes, such as Cu, Zn-superoxide dismutase (Cu, Zn-SOD), Mn-superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), was also used as a measure of their antioxidant properties [293]. The photochemilumiescence (PLC) assay is a more recent antioxidant capacity assessment method and was employed for the evaluation of antioxidant capacity of baobab fruit pulp extracts [369].

Anti-inflammatory properties of these extracts were assessed by their ability to inhibit 5-lipoxygenases [94, 370, 371] or cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2) activities [65, 275, 317, 372, 373]. Using the former [374] and the latter [264, 331] methodologies, respectively, a great number of South African medicinal plant extracts were screened for their anti-inflammatory properties. The effect of medicinal extracts on the biosynthesis of different prostaglandins was assessed as a measure of their anti-inflammatory effect [239, 337, 375]. Extracts of Podocarpus species were shown to inhibit the activities of the COX enzymes [317]. Once again, using this test, the anti-inflammatory properties of the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of 39 plants used in traditional Zulu medicine were screened [376]. The Hen’s Egg Test-Chorioallantoic Membrane (HET-CAM) assay which utilizes the CAM’s capillary system in bred hen eggs was also used to assess the anti-inflammatory activity through antiangiogenic effects of the ethanol and aqueous extracts of Drosera rotundifolia and D. madagascariensis [155].

The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory abilities of the herbal extracts were further assessed by evaluating their ability to control the production of ROS produced by oxidative burst in neutrophils stimulated with L-formyl-L-methionyl-L-leucyl-L-phenylalanine (FMLP) [21, 246]. The inhibition of neutrophils elastase was used as a measure of anti-inflammatory property and it was proposed that the presence of flavonoids such as hyperoside, quercetin, and isoquercitrin in D. rotundifolia [377] and five flavonoid compounds in two Polypodium species (P. decumanum and P. triseriale) [378] were thought to contribute to this anti-inflammatory activity. These and other in vitro tests were used to assess the antioxidant properties of three Ghanaian species: Spathodea campanulata, Commelina diffusa, and Secamone afzelii [63].

Inflammation is a complex mechanism with many pathways. Several extracts derived from medicinal plants have been shown to modulate or inhibit the activities of mediators of inflammation. For instance, kolaviron, a bioflavonoid compound isolated from the seeds of Garcinia kola, has been reported to possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities via its effects on COX-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) by inhibiting the expression of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) [115]. Quercetin is a flavonoid molecule ubiquitous in nature and functions as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent. Dose- and time-dependent effects of quercetin have been investigated on proinflammatory cytokine expression and iNOS, focusing on its effects on NF-κB signal transduction pathways in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells by using real time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and immunoblotting. Curcumin, a yellow pigment of turmeric, has been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory activity. Curcumin has been found effective in the treatment or control of chronic inflammatory conditions such as rheumatism, atherosclerosis, type II diabetes, and cancer [203]. Calixto et al. reported that the anti-inflammatory action of active spice-derived components results from the disruption of the production of various inflammatory proteins (e.g., cytokines such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), iNOS, and COX-2) [379].

Animal studies were also conducted to assess the antioxidant properties of several medicinal extracts. The antioxidant potential of Hypericum perforatum, containing many polyphenolic compounds, was evaluated on splanchnic artery occlusion (SAO) shock-mediated injury [477] and also against elevated brain oxidative status induced by amnestic dose of scopolamine in rats [126]. Some medicinal plant extracts were tested for their ability to protect against carbon tetrachloride-, 2-acetylaminofluorene- (2-AAF-), and galactosamine-induced liver as well as aflatoxin B1-(AFB1-)induced genotoxicity. Using this test, it was found that an extract of Garcinia kola seeds [116, 478, 479], a decoction of Trichilia roka root [270], extracts of Entada africana [442], and Thonningia sanguinea [98, 480] possessed protective abilities. The antioxidant properties of plant extracts against potassium bromate (KBrO(3))-induced kidney damage showed the ability of G. kola seed extract to protect the kidneys [481].

Animal studies were also used to assess the anti-inflammatory ability of a great number of medicinal plant extracts using the carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema model. Plants investigated include seed extracts of Picralima nitida [399], crude methanol extract of the root of Moringa oleifera [469], powdered leaves and root of Mallotus oppositifolium [167], methanolic extract of Picralima nitida fruit [400], hot water extract of Alstonia boonei root-bark, Rauvolfia vomitoria root-bark, and Elaeis guineensis nuts [56], secondary root aqueous extract of Harpagophytum procumbens [303], crude extracts of Sphenocentrum jollyanum [272], aqueous and methanolic extracts of Hypoxis hemerocallidea corm [482], aqueous and methanolic extracts of Sclerocarya birrea stem-bark [483], aqueous extract of Mangifera indica stem-bark [13], aqueous extracts of Leonotis leonurus leaves [484], leaf extracts of Bryophyllum pinnatum [148], methanol extracts of the stem-bark of Alstonia boonei [485], aerial parts of Amaranthus caudatus [486], methanolic extracts of Kigelia pinnata flower [415], and leaf and twig extracts of Dorstenia barteri [276]. In all of these studies, the anti-inflammatory effect against carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema was attributed to flavonoids and other polyphenolic compounds. Animal tests also employed to assess the anti-inflammatory effects of the medicinal plant extracts included inflammatory cell response such as neutrophil chemotaxis and degranulation [112, 487], antiatherosclerosis effects [486], and pain assessment in experimental animals [117].

The effect of the medicinal plants on the induction or inhibition of drug metabolizing enzymes was also studied in animals. The effect of the aqueous extract of Thonningia sanguinea on 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD, CYP1A1), 7-pentoxyresorufin O-dealkylase (PROD, CYP2B1/2), 7-methoxyresorufin O-demethylase (MROD, CYP1A2), aniline hydroxylase (aniline, CYP2E1), p-nitrophenol hydroxylase (PNPH, CYP2E1), and erythromycin N-demethylase (ERDM, CYP3A1) in rat liver was found to selectively modulate CYP isoenzymes [100] and suppress CYP3A2 and CYP1A2 gene expression [101].

3. Compounds Isolated from African Medicinal Plant Extracts with Confirmed Antioxidant Activities

Several medicinal plant extracts were studied at research centres in African countries for their antioxidant properties. The major findings of these investigations have indicated that, in addition to known antioxidant compounds such as ascorbic acid in the seeds of Parkia biglobosa [204] and fruits pulp of Adansonia digitata [369], alpha-tocopherol in methanol extracts of the stems of Secamone afzelii [62] or from the seeds [38] and methanol extracts of leaves of Amaranthus caudatus [39], and apigenin and luteolin in aerial parts of Bulbine capitata [66], several other antioxidant compounds were identified. Although known antioxidant compounds such as ascorbic acid have been confirmed to promote wound healing, not all the newly identified compounds have been tested for such activity [488–491].

The identified compounds included mainly flavonoids such as flavones and flavonols, flavone and flavonol glycosides, chalcones and dihydrochalcones, and flavonones, although some anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and anthrones were also isolated with antioxidant properties. A wide range of plant extracts investigated have been shown to contain flavonoids. Dorstenia species are rich in flavonoids some of which are unique to this genus [67, 205], namely, prenylated flavonoids as found in Dorstenia kameruniana and twigs of D. mannii [206, 207]. Earlier studies have shown that prenylated flavonoids had antioxidant properties, which protected human LDL from oxidation [208]. Those isolated from African medicinal plant extracts were also tested and their antioxidant properties confirmed. The antioxidant activities of three prenylated flavonoids from D. mannii (6,8-diprenyleriodictyol, dorsmanin C, 7,8-(2,2-dimethylchromeno)-6-geranyl-3,5,3′,4′-tetrahydroxyflavonol and dorsmanin F, (+)-7,8-[2′′-(1-hydroxy-1-methylethyl)-dihydrofurano]-6-prenyl-5,3′,4′-trihydroxyflavanone) against LDL oxidation and also their free radical scavenging activity have been indicated [187]. Similarly, a diprenylated chalcone, Bartericin A, present in D. barteri leaf and twig extracts was shown to have potent antioxidant properties. It was found that this and other prenylated and geranylated chalcones were as active as the prenylated flavones and may account for the anti-inflammatory action of these extracts [276]. Free radical scavenging activity was also confirmed for prenylated anthronoids isolated from the stem-bark of Harungana madagascariensis [121] and for proanthocyanidins isolated from the bark of Burkea africana [175]. The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of kolaviron, a biflavonoid isolated from a Garcinia kola seed extract to scavenge free radicals, which protect against lipid peroxidation and H₂O₂-induced DNA strand breaks and oxidized bases, were also reported [114, 116–119, 209]. In addition, the ability of free radical scavenging activity and ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation of Thonningianin A and Thonningianin B, ellagitannins, isolated from Thonningia sanguinea have been shown [99, 366]. The anti-inflammatory ability of Griffonianone D ((7E)-(6′′,7′′-dihydroxy-3′′,7′′-dimethyloct-2′′-enyl)oxy-4′-methoxyisoflavone), an isoflavone present in Millettia griffoniana, has been established [195]. Prenylated anthronoids, harunmadagascarins A (8,9-dihydroxy-4,4-bis-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-6-methyl-2,3-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)anthrone and B (8,9-dihydroxy-4,4,5-tris-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-6-methyl-2,3-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)anthrone), harunganol B, and harungin anthrone from the stem-bark of Harungana madagascariensis have exhibited significant antioxidant activity [121]. Saponins and isofuranonaphthoquinones isolated from different medicinal plant extracts showed antioxidant properties and include the saponin, Balanin 1 (3β,12β,14β,16β) cholest-5-ene-3,16-diyl bis (β-d-glucopyranoside)-12-sulphate, sterol sulfonated, Balanin 2 (3β,20S,22R,25R)-26-hydroxy-22-acetoxyfurost-5-en-3-yl-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-glucopyranoside, and a furostanol saponin isolated from Balanites aegyptiaca [104]. Isofuranonaphthoquinones isolated from the roots of Bulbine capitata, 5,8-dihydroxy-1-tigloylmethylnaphtho[2,3-c]furan-4,9-dione, 1-acetoxymethyl-8-hydroxynaphtho [2,3-c]furan-4,9-dione, and 1-acetoxymethyl-5,8-dihydroxynaphtho[2,3-c]furan-4,9-dione possess antioxidant activities [68]. Though none of these antioxidant compounds has been directly assessed for wound healing potential, the enhanced wound closure observed with treatment of prenylated flavonoids such as genistein [492] and the demonstrated effect of chalcones on the inflammation process [493] attest to the potential of isolated antioxidants in wound management.

4. Crude Extracts of African Medicinal Plants with Confirmed Antioxidant Activities

The antioxidant properties of a larger proportion of African medicinal plants listed in Tables 1 and 2 were tested using either aqueous or organic plant extracts. After confirming antioxidant properties, a correlation was proposed between this property and the general groups of antioxidant compounds that are present in these extracts. No further attempts were made to isolate the specific compounds that may have contributed towards this property. Flavonoids in Aloe barbadensis [32], chromone glycosides in A. claviflora [35], essential oils in Artemisia abyssinica, and Juniperus procera [79] as well as Helichrysum dasyanthum, H. felinum, H. excisum, and H. petiolare [94], proanthocyanidins in Burkea africana bark [175], polyphenols in extracts of Crataegus monogyna [321], saponins, and alkaloids in extracts of Leucosidea sericea [210, 211] are all considered as major compounds that have contributed to the antioxidant properties of these plants. Reports on a number of Barleria species, which includes B. albostellata, B. greenii, and B. prionitis, have indicated their anti-inflammatory [212] and antioxidant capacities [213]. Unlike the isolated compounds, most of the plants listed for possessing antioxidant activity, including extracts of Agerantum conyzoides, Euphorbia hirta, Kigelia africana, and Nauclea latifolia, have been shown to possess wound healing ability [494–496].

Furthermore, studies have focused on screening a vast number of plants, used in a specific region, so as to determine their antioxidant properties, Mali [357], South Africa [19, 188, 267, 364], Cameroon [182, 313], Algeria [85], Ghana [98], Burkina Faso [266], Madagascar [23], and Mauritius [293], and anti-inflammatory properties, South Africa [168, 264, 374, 376] and West Africa [400].

5. Discussion and Conclusion

The use of traditional herbal remedies as alternative medicine plays a significant role in Africa since it features extensively in primary health care. The search for natural antioxidants, especially from plant sources, as a potential intervention for treatment of free radical mediated diseases is an important research field, especially for those in developing countries. Many polyphenols, including phenolic acids, flavonoids (anthocyanins and anthoxanthins), tannins, and lignans, are known to act as antioxidants and protect against various pathological conditions such as coronary artery disease and wounds, in addition to their anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities [214–216].

Flavonoids are a large group of compounds containing several hydroxyl groups on their ring structures and include isoflavonoids and isoflavonoid glycosides, flavones, and flavone glycosides, flavonols and flavonol glycosides, anthocyanins, chalcones and dihydrochalcones, aurones, flavonones and dihydroflavonols, and flavans and biflavonyls. To date, approximately 9000 different flavonoids have been identified from plant sources [217]. Great interest has been dedicated to the antioxidant properties of flavonoids that may function as potent free radical scavengers, reducing agents, and protectors against peroxidation of lipids [208, 218]. Reviews have been published documenting numerous studies on antioxidant efficacy of flavonoids and phenolic compounds as well as on the relationship between their antioxidant activities, as hydrogen donating free radical scavengers, in relation to their chemical structures. The importance of the unsaturation in the C ring of quercetin compared to catechin in the increased antioxidant activity of the former has been presented [216, 219–223]. Also, the importance of the position and number of hydroxyl groups on the phenolic rings in increasing or decreasing the antioxidant properties of these compounds has been emphasized [216, 219–223].

Although many flavonoids have been isolated from different African medicinal plant extracts, the structure-activity relationship of these compounds has not yet been investigated. Recent studies have also shown that some flavonoids are modulators of proinflammatory gene expression, thus leading to the attenuation of the inflammatory response [224]. Examples of these include the lipophilic flavones and flavonols 5,7-dihydroxy-2′,3′,4′,5′-tetramethoxyflavone, 5,4′-dihydroxy-7,2′,3′,5′-tetramethoxyflavone, and 5,7,4′-trihydroxy-2′,3′,5′-trimethoxyflavone isolated from Psiadia punctulata [225] and Dinklagin B and C isolated from Dorstenia dinklagei [226]. Isolated flavone and flavonol glycosides include kaempferide 3-O-beta-xylosyl (1→2)-beta-glucoside, kaempferol 3-O-alpha-rhamnoside-7,4′-di-O-beta-galactoside, kaempferol 3,7,4′-tri-O-beta-glucoside and quercetin 3-O-[alpha-rhamnosyl (1→6)] [beta-glucosyl (1→2)]-beta-glucoside-7-O-alpha-rhamnoside from Warburgia ugandensis, and quercetin-7,4′-disulphate from Alchornea laxiflora [159]. Flavanones and dihydroflavonols include dorsmanin I and J and epidorsmanin F and G isolated from Dorstenia mannii [227] and Dinklagins A, isolated from the twigs of Dorstenia dinklagei [226] and two flavones isolated from the twigs of Eriosema robustum [182] and 1α,3β-dihydroxy-12-oleanen-29-oic (1), 1-hydroxy-12-olean-30-oic acid (2), 3,30-dihydroxyl-12-oleanen-22-one (3), and 1,3,24-trihydroxyl-12-olean-29-oic acid (4), a new pentacyclic triterpenoid (1α, 23-dihydroxy-12-oleanen-29-oic acid-3β-O-2,4-di-acetyl-l-rhamnopyranoside) (5) from Combretum imberbe [138]. Anthocyanins isolated include the cyanidins 3-O-(2′′-galloyl-β-galactopyranoside) and 3-O-(2′′-galloyl-6′′-O-α-rhamnopyranosyl-β-galactopyranoside) from Acalypha hispida [228] and cyanidin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside and cyanidin 3-O-(2-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside from Hibiscus sabdariffa [266]. When revising the literature, it became apparent that even though most of these medicinal plants and compounds have confirmed antioxidant activity, not many of them have been screened for wound healing potential. As there is an association between antioxidative therapy and wound healing, research in this direction is as imminent as it is important. Furthermore, structure-activity studies on the isolated compounds from African medicinal extracts will be of great interest.

Antioxidants may exert their protective effects via different mechanisms at different stages of the oxidation process. There are those that are able to inhibit the production of free radicals via their ability to chelate transition metal ions and those that are able to quench and stabilise free radicals [229, 230]. Additionally, they are further subdivided into categories according to their functions [230]. Such classification of the newly isolated antioxidant compounds from African medicinal plant extracts is warranted to better understand their antioxidant properties.

It should be noted that the antioxidant activity of the extracts and compounds listed in this review was mostly determined using either single assays or in vitro analysis. It is therefore possible that some of these extracts and compounds may not show antioxidant activity when alternative testing methods are used. Furthermore, although in vivo studies are encouraged, most studies cited used in vitro assays. As antioxidant activity in vitro does not necessarily translate to activity in vivo, due to pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic processes that occurs in vivo, it is possible that samples may not be active when tested in animals. Activity of such samples should therefore be confirmed using animal models.

Additionally, attempts should be made to identify the compounds responsible for the proven antioxidant properties where not yet done, and in cases where they have been isolated, their wound healing properties should be investigated. If the activity of the compounds and plants identified in this review is confirmed in vivo, they could serve as viable sources for the treatment of wounds in future.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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