Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2018 (2018), Article ID 7686913, 27 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7686913

Review Article

The Confrontation between Ethnopharmacology and Pharmacological Tests of Medicinal Plants Associated with Mental and Neurological Disorders

Giovanna Felipe Cavalcante e Costa,¹ Hisao Nishijo,² Leonardo Ferreira Caixeta,³ and Tales Alexandre Aversi-Ferreira2,4

¹Federal University of Tocantins, Legal Amazonia, Brazil
²System Emotional Science, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama, Japan
³Unit of Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavior Neurology (UNCO), Federal University of Goiás, Goiania, Brazil
⁴Laboratory of Biomathematics, Department of Anatomy, Federal University of Alfenas, Alfenas, MG, Brazil

Correspondence should be addressed to Tales Alexandre Aversi-Ferreira; aversiferreira@gmail.com

Received 14 December 2017; Revised 16 March 2018; Accepted 17 April 2018; Published 2 July 2018

Academic Editor: Letizia Angiolella

Copyright © 2018 Giovanna Felipe Cavalcante e Costa et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract.

For neurological disorders, pharmacological tests have shown promising results in the reduction of side effects when using plants with known therapeutic effects in the treatment of some types of dementia. Therefore, the goals of this study are to gather data about the major medicinal plants used in the nervous system as described in ethnopharmacological surveys from South America and Brazil and to compare this data with the results from pharmacological tests on the active principles of those same plants found in the scientific literature. After collecting the data about each plant, their respective popular indication was compared with the results found through pharmacological tests. The discrepancy rate between the effects observed by ethnopharmacological and pharmacological methods in this study is greater than 50%. In conclusion, despite the importance of ethnopharmacological data, it is important to make comparisons with pharmacological tests for the same plants, since the pharmacological studies, although few, have shown a high rate of discrepancy in the results.

1. Introduction

The knowledge of medicinal plants for therapeutic purposes originated from indigenous tribal cultures [1–4] or ancient civilizations such as those once found in Iran, India, or China [1–3, 5–7] and was passed from generation to generation mostly by means of oral tradition. Presently, knowledge is commonly limited to a village and rural areas or by families isolated from urban centers [8]. Most likely, original information of plants used for therapeutic purpose underwent modifications through time. This was due to their discovery by trial and error over many generations and the oral transmission of information rather than through writing.

A previous study associated culturally propagated therapeutic effects of different medicinal plants obtained by ethnopharmacological/ethnobotanical means with those found in laboratory tests, showing approximately 66% discrepancy in the results [9]. Trading and distribution mistakes [10], similarity of plant names for different species [11], presence of impurities during preparation from other plants, insects, and mushrooms [12], and unexpected reactions and interactions with the active compounds [13] are all examples of commonly encountered problems in the therapeutic use of medicinal plants.

It is not suggested that the medicinal use of plants should be banned, decreased, or hampered. However, there is a need for each procedure to be evaluated by government agencies, institutions, and specialists who understand the therapeutic use of biodiversity in societies with an increasing interest in alternative treatments [6, 14, 15] or in populations with limited or no access to other types of therapeutic resources. Medicinal plant-based therapy may offer benefits, like decreased side effects [16–18], higher autonomy for individuals in caring for their own health [3], reduced or nonexistent costs, and easy access for social groups located in inaccessible areas or away from urban centers and for people in poor urban areas with limited or no access to a healthcare system [6, 14, 15, 19, 20]. Indeed, those groups rely on alternative therapeutic methods for their health care, especially those derived from local medicinal plants, which is a major issue in countries with higher income gaps.

Many ethnopharmacological surveys were performed in countries and regions representing the greatest biodiversity to identify plants used, with the aim of preserving the cultural heritage of the plant therapy [1–3, 5–7, 21, 22] and acquiring new active compounds for the pharmaceutical industry [8]. Brazil presents the largest biodiversity on the planet [23] and has a large amount of unexplored resources available for ethnopharmacological and herbal studies given that only 16% of Brazil’s medicinal plants or just 8% of Brazilian national flora [24] has been evaluated for therapeutic potential [25]. This country represents around 47% of all territories of the South American continent.

Countries in South America present important data about medicinal plants, because of their specific locations in the Andean region, close/into the Amazon Forest [8] or the pampas. Indeed, the use of some medicinal plants was first found in the population in the Andes Ridge, in the pampas, Patagonia [10], or Brazilian’s savanna (cerrado) [9]. Probably because of the large population or size, most of the studies in South America are found in Brazil, while ethnopharmacological studies are incipient in other countries in this continent [8, 10].

However, quality or reliability of medicinal plant effects cannot be ensured if ethnobotanical studies do not provide laboratory verification of the effects when prescribing compounds derived from those medicinal plants. Healthcare professionals and patients should note that studies about the correspondence or discrepancy between ethnopharmacological knowledge and laboratory tests for the same plant are lacking [9] and must be done for each class of drug.

There is a growing evidence from in vitro, animal, and clinical studies reporting that medicinal plants might be beneficial for treating various mental and neurological disorders including Alzheimer disease, depression, anxiety, and insomnia [363–366]. For neurological disorders, in particular, pharmacological tests have shown promising results in the reduction of side effects when using plants with known therapeutic effects in the treatment of some types of dementia [18, 22, 367–372]. Medicinal plants have been sought as an alternative therapy [18, 373–375] owing to the inefficacy of some industrial medications on certain diseases, such as degenerative ones. Examples are the use of Melissa officinalis, Salvia officinalis, Ginkgo biloba, and Huperzia serrata for treating the symptoms of Alzheimer disease [18, 373–375].

The problem is that, especially in developing and/or populated countries, people rely on medicinal plants as primary healthcare [376]. The situation is true for mental and neurological disorders. Patient complaints associated directly or indirectly with neurological or neuropsychiatric disorders, such as headache, insomnia, amnesia, anxiety, or depression, are very common [146, 298, 377, 378], and the use of medicinal plants for these purposes is very frequent in populated countries such as Brazil, India, and China [1–3, 5–7, 22] but without support of adequate pharmacological tests.

Considering the errors in the use and sale of alternative medicines as a whole, we hypothesize that the same errors could happen with plants that act directly on the nervous system. Therefore, the goal of this study is to gather data about the major medicinal plants used in the neural system, as described in ethnopharmacological surveys from South America like in Brazil and compare this data with the results from pharmacological tests on the active principles of those same plants found in the scientific literature. Specifically, this study intends to present reliable data for the use of medicinal plants in primary healthcare and assisting conventional treatments of neurological disorders.

2. Materials and Methods

This study was done through literature review of ethnopharmacological surveys on the medicinal plants used by groups in South America (with emphasis on Brazil) found in academic databases (MEDLINE, LILACS, Scopus, SciELO, Google Academic, and Elsevier). The terms searched were ethnobotanical studies, medicinal plants, ethnopharmacology, neural system, South America, and Brazil. The search was restricted to the most recent and classical articles/books written in Portuguese, English, or Spanish. After collecting the data about each plant, their respective popular indication was compared with the results found through pharmacological tests.

For the first phase, 55 ethnobotanical survey articles were selected and then the most commonly used plants by the population for treating neural system disorders were identified. A table was prepared with data regarding family, scientific name, part of the plant utilized, preparation method, indications, and comparison with pharmacological tests.

In the second phase, 181 articles in which pharmacological tests had been performed with the chosen plants were selected. Unfortunately, scientific tests for the proposed indication or toxicity for all the plants could not be found.

Statistical analysis was done using central tendency measures such as modal frequency.

3. Results

Data on South American medicinal plants that act on the nervous system was summarized by family, scientific name, part of the plant utilized, preparation method, indications, and comparison with pharmacological tests (Table 1). The most cited families were Lamiaceae (24/138), Asteraceae (16/138), and Verbenaceae (6/138), representing 33.7% of the medicinal plants analyzed (Figure 1).

Table 1: Family names, forms of preparation, used part of the plants, medicinal effects cited by population, the pharmacological effects tested for cited plants with the references, and the divergence between the cited effects by population and pharmacological tests.

Family
Scientific name/common name
Forms of preparation/used part
Medicinal effects cited by population
Pharmacological tests
Divergences

Acanthaceae

Hygrophila tyttha Leonard/Tame-male
Infusion/Part air plant
Calmative [26]
Anxiolytic effect, anticonvulsant and sedative [26]
No

Justicia pectoralis Jacq./Anador
Decoction/Leaf
Headache [27]
Anxiolytic and depressor Neural Central System [28], analgesic and anti-inflammatory [29], estrogenic, progestagenic and anti-inflammatory effects [30], antioxidant [31]
No

Alismataceae

Echinodorus grandiflorus (Cham. & Schltdl.) Mich./Hat leatherback
Decoction/Leaf
Analgesic [21]
Anti-inflammatory and analgesic [32, 33], diuretic [33], antihypertensive [34, 35]
No

Amaranthaceae

Alternanthera paronychioides St-Hil./Anador
Not found/Leaf, stalk
Analgesic [36]
Antioxidant [37]
Yes

Apiaceae

Apium graveolens L./Celery
Not found/Complete plant
Calmative [36]
Vasorelaxant and antihypertensive [38]
Yes

Coriandrum sativum  L./Coriander
Infusion/Seed
Headache [39]
Antioxidant [40], anti-inflammatory [41], antibacterial [42], anxiolytic, sedative and muscle relaxant [43], antifungal [44], hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective [45], analgesic [46]
No

Pimpinella anisum L./Fennel
Infusion/Seed
Calmative [7, 27, 39, 47–49]
Antibacterial [50], neuroprotective and anticonvulsant [51], antiviral and immunostimulating [52], antioxidant [53], anticancer [54]
No

Foeniculum vulgareMill./Fennel
Decoction/Stalk
Headache and calmative [13, 36, 55–60]
Antimicrobial [61], diuretic [62], antihelminthic [63], antioxidant [64], anxiolytic [65]
No

Aquifoliaceae

Ilex paraguariensis/Erva Mate
Infusion/leaves, branches
Stimulant [66]
Stimulant [66]
No

Araliaceae

Didymopanax macrocarpum (C.
& S.) Seem./
Five leaves
Compress, bathe/Leaf
Analgesic [67]
Not found
Not found

Hedera helix/Hiedra
Cataplasm/Leaf
Analgesic, neuritis, neuralgia [68]
Expectorant and antitussive [69], mucolytic and bronchodilator [70], anti-inflammatory [71]
No

Aristolochiaceae

Aristolochia esperanzae O. Kuntze./Papo de peru, cipo-millhomem
Decoction/Complete plant
Analgesic [67]
Antiophidic activity [72], antimicrobial [73]
Yes

Aristolochia gilbertii Hook/Milhomem
Infusion/Root
Headache [7]
Not found
Not found

Aristolochia melastoma Manso ex.
Duchtra/Capitãozinho
Decoction/Root, leaf
Sedative [67]
Not found
Not found

Asteraceae

Achillea millefolium L./Ponta-alívio
Decoction/Complete plant
Calmative, analgesic [21, 36, 47, 57, 74, 75]
Immunostimulating [76]
Yes

Achyrocline satureioides D.C./Macela
Infusion/Flower
Sedative, calmative, headache [56, 67, 75, 77, 78]
Anticancer [79], calmative effect, anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic [80], antiviral [81]
No

Artemisia absinthium L./Losna
Decoction/Leaf
Analgesic [21, 82]
Anticancer [83], antifungal [84], antibacterial [85], antileishmanial [86]
Yes

Artemisia camphorata Vill./Camphor
Infusion/Leaves
Calmative [58] antiepileptic [87]
Not found
Not found

Artemisia vulgaris L./Artemisia
Not found
Headache [88]
Antifungal [89]
Yes

Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschter/Camomile
Infusion/Flower
Calmative, sedative [36, 39, 48, 57, 90–92]
Antibacterial and anti-inflammatory [92, 93], gastroprotection [94], antihyperglycemic and antioxidant [95]
Yes

Chrysanthemum parthenium Bernhadi/Artemisia
Decoction, infusion/Leaves
Calmative [78]
Not found
Not found

Cynara scolymus L./Artichoke
Not found
Calmative [74]
Diuretic [96], prolonged satiety sensation and hypoglycemic [97], antioxidant [98]
Yes

Lactuca sativa L./Lettuce
In nature, infusion/Leaves, root
Calmative, sedative [74, 99]
Antioxidant [100]
Yes

Matricaria chamomilla L./Camomile
Infusion/Leaves
Calmative [56, 75, 78, 101, 102]
Antibacterial and antioxidant [103]
Yes

Mikania hirsutissima DC./Cipó-cabeludo
Not found
Calmative [67, 104]
Antiophidic activity and antidiarrheal [105]
Yes

Solidago chilensis Meyen/Arnica
Compress/Complete plant
Analgesic [106]
Anti-inflammatory [107]
Yes

Spilanthes oleracea/Anestesiol
Not found
Anesthetic [108]
Peptic antiulcer and contraception [109]
Yes

Tanacetum sp./Macelinha
Decoction/Complete plant
Analgesic [23]
Not found
Not found

Tanacetum vulgare L./Catinga-de-mulata
Decoction, maceration/Leaves
Analgesic [23]
Antibacterial and antifungal [110], antiviral [111], cytotoxic [112], treatment of infections caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania amazonensis [113], immunomodulatory [114], antihelminthic [115]
Yes

Vernonia cf. condensata Baker./Boldo do chile
Infusion/Bark
Calmative [57]
Antitumor and anti-inflammatory [116], antioxidant [117]
Yes

Bignoniaceae

Anemopaegma arvense/Catuaba
Infusion, decoction/Root, bark, leaves
Nervous exhaustion [118]
Increased weight and testicular parenchyma [119], antifungal [120]
Yes

Bombacaceae

Eriotheca candolleana (K. Schum.)/Catuaba
Infusion/Root
Nervous exhaustion [121]
Not found
Not found

Boraginaceae

Cordia verbenacea DC./Maria preta
Bathe/Leaves
Analgesic [49]
Antimicrobial [122], anti-inflammatory [123]
No

Brassicaceae

Coronopus didymus (L.)
Smith/Mastruz
Maceration/Leaves
Analgesic [49]
Healing [124], anti-inflammatory [125]
No

Bromeliaceae

Tillandsia usneoides (L.) L/Barba de velho
Not found
Antiepileptic [49]
Abortion [126], antiviral [127]
Yes

Buddlejaceae

Buddleja brasiliensis Jacq./Verbasco
Infusion, cataplasm/Part air plant
Calmative [67]
Low potential hemolytic [128]
Yes

Burseraceae

Commiphora myrrha (T. Nees) Engl/Myrrh
Infusion/Leaves
Calmative [49]
Antioxidant [117], analgesic [129]
Yes

Caesalpiniaceae

Bauhinia forficata Link./Pata de vaca
Decoction/Leaves
Analgesic [23]
Antioxidant and increased liver glycogen [130], antimutagenic [131]
Yes

Bauhinia rutilans Spruce ex. Benth/Escada-de-macaco
Infusion/Part air plant
Analgesic [99]
Not found
Not found

Canellaceae

Capsicodendron dinissi Occhioni/Pepper
Not found
Migraine [104]
Not found
Not found

Capparaceae

Cleome spinosa Jacq./Mussambê
Infusion/Complete plant
Headache [132]
Cytotoxic [49], antioxidant [133], anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive [134]
No

Caprifoliaceae

Sambucus nigra L./Elderberry
Decoction/Leaves
Analgesic [23, 49]
Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant [134], parasiticidal [135]
No

Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodium ambrosioides L./Yerba Santa Maria
Maceration, infusion/Leaves, bark, seed
Analgesic, calmative [23, 48, 57]
Antitumor [79], hypotensive [136], antipyretic and anxiolytic [137]
Yes

Compositaceae

Baccharis trimera (Less) D.C./Gorse
Infusion/Leaves
Headache [138]
Antiulcer and antioxidant [139], anti-inflammatory [140], anti-inflammatory and analgesic [141]
No

Vernonia condensata B./Boldo
Infusion, decoction/Leaves
Calmative [138]
Antioxidant [117], analgesic [142]
Yes

Cucurbitaceae

Cayaponia tayuya (Vell.) Cogn./Taiuia
Infusion, decoction/Root
Neuralgia [67]
Hepatotoxic [142], anti-inflammatory [143]
Yes

Dilleniaceae

Davilla rugosa Poir./Vine cabloco
Bathe/Root
Sedative [67]
Antioxidant [144], antiulcer [145]
Yes

Euphorbiaceae

Jatropha curcas L./Pião-bravo
Infusion/Seed
Headache [102, 132]
Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor [146], antibacterial, antioxidant and antitumor [147, 148], cytotoxic [149]
Yes

Ricinus communis L./Castor beans
Infusion/Leaves
Headache [77, 87]
Antimicrobial and anticancer [150], antimicrobial [151]
Yes

Fabaceae

Caesalpinia ferrea Mart. ex. Tul./Pau ferro
Not found
Analgesic [57]
Nutritional supplementation of iron, zinc and manganese [152] anti-inflammatory and healing [153], antihyperglycemic [154], antimicrobial [155]
No

Cajanus flavus De Candolle/Andu beans
Infusion/Leaves
Headache [99]
Not found
Not found

Erythrina falcata Benth/Surina, mulungu
Not found
Sedative and antiepileptic [67, 104]
Depressant CNS [156]
No

Indigofera anil/Anil
Not found
Sedative [107]
Not found
Not found

Indigofera suffruticosa Mill./Anileira
Decoction, infusion/Complete plant
Sedative [67]
Anti-inflammatory [157], lectin activity [158], antiepileptic [159], antiparasitic [160]
Yes

Pterodon emarginatus/Sucupira
Infusion/leaves, fruit
Headache [120]
Antimicrobial [161–163], analgesic and anti-inflammatory [164]; antileishmanial, anticancer, hypoglycemic [165]
No

Ginkgoaceae

Ginkgobiloba/Ginco
Decoction, infusion/Leaves
Vasodilator, brain dysfunction, dizziness and concentration and memory [160]
Treatment of Alzheimer disease [166], prevention of dementia [167], antioxidant, vasodilator, stimulant of SNC [168]
No

Geraniaceae

Pelargonium graveolens  L’Her/
Mauve smelling
Not found
Sedative [87]
Anxiolytic and antidepressant [159], antibacterial [169], hypoglycemic and antioxidant [170]
No

Mimosa pudica L./Dormideira
Infusion/Complete plant
Sedative [99]
Reduction of fertility [171], hepatotoxic [172], lipid-lowering [173], anxiolytic and antipyretic [137], antiophidic [174]
No

Iridaceae

Calydorea sp./Jabotitana
Decoction/Rhizome
Analgesic [23]
Not found
Not found

Labiatae

Agastache mexicana Kunth/Toronjil
Not found
Sedative [102]
Antihypertensive [175], vasorelaxant [176], anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive [177], antinociceptive [178], anxiolytic [179]
No

Lavandula latifolia/Lavanda
Oil
Stimulant [68]
Anxiolytic [180], antifungal [181], antioxidant [182]
Yes

Origanum vulgare/oregano
Infusion/Leaf
Sedative [68]
Antimicrobial [183] proapoptotic effect and cytotoxic [184], antiurolithic [185]
Yes

Lamiaceae

Coleus barbatus Benth./Falso-boldo
Tisane mate/Leaf
Headache, calmative [56]
Hepatoprotective [186]
Yes

Cunila microcephala Benth./Hortelã-miúdo, hortelã-pimenta, poejo
Decoction/Complete plant
Analgesic [23, 58]
Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant [187]
No

Hyptis suaveolens Poit./Samba-coité
Tea/Leaf
Headache [188]
Hypoglycemic and antioxidant [189], hepatoprotective and antioxidant [190], gastroprotective activity [191], neuroprotective and antioxidant [192], antifungal [193]
Yes

Lavandula officinalis Chaix & Kitt/Alfazema
Tea/Leaf, stalk
Calmative [49]
Antimicrobial [194], antioxidant [195], sedative and hypnotic [196]
No

Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br./Cordão de São Francisco
Infusion, decoction/Leaf, branches
Sedative, headache [132, 138]
Antimicrobial [197], anti-inflammatory [198]
Yes

Melissa officinalisL./Erva-cidreira, melissa
Decoction/Leaf
Calmative, migraine, sedative [23, 36, 55, 58, 59, 87, 89, 90, 101, 102, 138, 199]
Anti-inflammatory [200], calmative [201], antioxidant [202], antigenotoxic and antimutagenic [203], neuroprotective [199, 204]
No

Mentha arvensis L./Hortelã-mentol
Tea/Leaf
Headache [188]
Antibacterial [205], antifungal [206], anti-inflammatory and sedative [207], peptic antiulcer [208]
Yes

Mentha cf. suaveolens Ehrh./Hortelã, hortelã-grande
Decoction, maceration/Leaf
Calmative, Analgesic [23, 199]
Antifungal [209, 210], antioxidant [211], antibacterial [212]
Yes

Mentha piperita L./Hortelã, hortelã-roxo
Decoction/Complete plant
Analgesic [23, 102]
Antifungal [213, 214], antioxidant [211], anthelmintic [215], hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic [216], anticancer [217] analgesic [218]
No

Mentha pulegium L./Poejo
Decoction/Stalk
Calmative, sedative [47, 56, 58, 78]
Antioxidant [211], antimicrobial [219]
Yes

Mentha sp./Hortelã
Decoction/Stalk
Headache, Calmative [36, 47, 49, 55–57]
Anthelmintic [215]
Yes

Mentha spicata L./

Headache [87]
Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic [216], antioxidant [220], antiemetic [221]
Yes

Mentha  ×  villosa Huds./Hortelã
Tea/Leaf
Headache [188]
Antifungal and antibacterial [222], antimicrobial and antioxidant [223], analgesic and antispasmodic [153]
No

Ocimum basilicum L./Alfavaca
Decoction, maceration/Leaf
Calmative, analgesic [23, 39]
Antidepressant and anticonvulsant [224]
Yes

Ocimum gratissimum L./l
Louro
Tea/Leaf
Headache, calmative [49, 87, 188]
Anticonvulsant [225, 226], antifungal [227]
Yes

Ocimum minimum L./Manjericão
Maceration/Leaf
Headache [94]
Antiulcerogenic and antioxidant [35]
Yes

Ocimum selloi Benth./Alfavaca
Infusion, tea/Leaf
Calmative [138]
Antibacterial [219], analgesic and antidiarrheal [220]
Yes

Origanum majoranaL./Manjerona
Decoction/Stalk
Calmative [56]
Antibacterial [228], antioxidant [49], antimetastatic and antitumor [229], antihyperglycemic and antihyperlipidemic [230]
Yes

Plectranthus barbatus Andr./Boldo
Decoction, maceration/Leaf
Analgesic [23, 57, 60]
Cytotoxic [231], acetylcholinesterase inhibitor [232], antimicrobial [233]
Yes

Plectranthus neochilus Schlechter/Boldo do Chile
Infusion/Leaf
Headache [89]
Analgesic [234]
No

Rosmarinus officinalis L./Alecrim
Decoction/Leaf
Analgesic, calmative [23, 39, 48, 58, 59, 102, 138, 235]
Antibacterial [236], antioxidant [237], antifungal [238], anticancer [239], antidepressant [240], analgesic [241], antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, metal chelation [242], prevention and treatment of dementia [243], neuroprotective [244]
No

Salvia lachnostachys Benth./Melissa
Decoction/Leaf
Somniferous [23, 78]
Anti-inflammatory and analgesic [244]
Yes

Salvia lavandulifolia Vahl./Mariselva
Oil/
Nervous disorders [245]
Hypoglycemic [245], neuroprotective [246]
No

Salvia officinalis L./Salvia, barcelona
Decoction/Leaf
Calmative, Analgesic [23]
Antibacterial [228], anti-inflammatory [247], antidiarrheal and antispasmodic [185], analgesic and anti-inflammatory [248]
No

Lauraceae

Cinnamomum zeylanicum  Breyn./Canela
Infusion, maceration/Stalk
Calmative [39]
Antifungal [249] antimicrobial [250], antioxidant [251], antidiabetic [252]
Yes

Nectandra megapotamica (Spreng.) Mez/Canela-preta
Infusion/leaf
Calmative [253]
Anesthetic [254]
Yes

Leguminosae

Acosmium subelegans (Mohlenbr) Yakovl/Perobinha do campo

Sedative, epilepsy and nervous exhaustion [255]
Depressant effect SNC and anticonvulsant [255]
No

Hymenaea courbaril L./Jatobá
Infusion, maceration/Bark, fruit
Sedative [132]
Not found.
Not found

Tamarindus indica/Tamarindo
Compress, bathe, infusion/Stalk, leaves, fruit
Treatment of fever, stomach upset, diarrhea, jaundice and as skin cleansers [256], inflammation, urinary tract infection and laxative [257], headache and stress [258]
Antibacterial [256], antihelminthic [257], antioxidant [259], antinociceptive [260], analgesic and anti-inflammatory [261], antihistaminic and antianaphylactic [262], antiulcer [263]
No

Liliaceae

Allium sativum L./Alho

Headache [59]
Hypotensive [264], synergism with antibiotics [265], antioxidant [266]
Yes

Malpighiaceae

Banisteriopsis  
caapi/Mariri, ayahuasca
Decoction, infusion/vine
Hallucinogen, emotional and cognitive sensory changes, psychoactive [267–269] aid in treatment of abuse of other Psychoactives [270]
Hallucinogen [271] inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, in addition to inhibiting MAO [272]
No

Galphimia glauca/Amarilla
Maceration/Part air plants
Calmative [273]
Anxiolytic [273]
No

Meliaceae

Cedrela fissilis/Cedro-rosa
Infusion/Bark
Headache [121]
Not found
Not found

Moraceae

Cannabis sativa/maconha, marijuana, cânhamo
Oil, inhalation/Leaves, stalk, flowers
Treatment of pain, nausea and vomiting, multiple sclerosis and other neurological disorders, loss of appetite and eating disorders, Insomnia, anxiety and depression, neuroprotective action [274], antiemetic, appetite stimulant [275], clinical and experimental studies in the treatment of dementias [276], schizophrenia, antipsychotic, anxiety [277], antipsychotic [278]
Treatment of pain, nausea and vomiting, multiple sclerosis and other neurological disorders, loss of appetite and eating disorders, Insomnia, anxiety and depression, neuroprotective action [273], antiemetic, appetite stimulant [274], clinical and experimental studies in the treatment of dementias [275], schizophrenia, antipsychotic, anxiety [276], antipsychotic [277], psychoactive [278]
No

Dorstenia brasiliensis Lam./Carapiá
Cataplasm/Rhizome
Anesthetic [67]
Anti-inflammatory [278]
Yes

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus globulus Labill./Eucalipto
Infusion, Bathe/Leaf
Headache [48]
Toxic effect [279], antibacterial [280, 281]
Yes

Eugenia uniflora L./Pitangueira
Decoction/Leaf
Calmative [23, 282]
Antimicrobial and antioxidant [283], anti-Trypanosoma cruzi [206]
Yes

Orchidaceae

Vanilla planifolia Jack. ex Andrews/Baunilha

Calmative [67]
Not found
Not found

Oxalidaceae

Averrhoa Carambola L./Carambola
Infusion/Leaf
Analgesic [99]
Analgesic [284]
No

Papaveraceae

Papaver somniferum/Planta do ópio

Analgesic and sedative [68]
Not found
Not found

Passifloraceae

Passiflora alata Curtis/Maracujá
Fruit
Calmative [55, 59, 77, 90]
Sedative [285]
No

Passiflora caerulea L./Maracujá
Infusion/Part air plant
Sedative and calmative [91, 286]
Anxiolytic [287]
No

Passiflora edulis Sims./Maracujá
Tea/Leaf
Calmative and insomnia [39, 48, 74, 77, 78, 90, 99, 257]
Anxiolytic [288]
No

Passiflora miersii Mart./Maracujazinho
Infusion/Leaf
Calmative and antidepressant [67]
Not found
Not found

Pedaliaceae

Sesamum orientale L./Gergelim
Seed/Juice
Anticonvulsant [99]
Hypoglycemic [289]
Yes

Phytolaccaceae

Petiveria alliacea L./Guiné, tira capeta
Decoction/Complete plant
Analgesic [23, 74, 99, 290]
Antimicrobial [291], antinociceptive, sedative, anticonvulsant and depressant [292]
Yes

Piperaceae

Pothomorphe umbellata Miq./Pariparoba
Infusion/Leaf
Headache [121]
Antioxidant [293], antitumor [294], antihelminthic [295]
Yes

Poaceae

Cymbopogon citratusStapf./Capim santo, capim limão
Decoction/Leaf
Calmative, analgesic and sedative [7, 23, 27, 36, 39, 47–49, 55–58, 74, 77, 78, 88–90, 99, 101, 102, 138, 296]
Anxiolytic, sedative and anticonvulsant [297]
No

Polygalaceae

Polygala paniculata L./Arnica
Decoction/Complete plant
Analgesic [23]
Analgesic and antidermatogenic [298], antinociceptive and gastric cytoprotective activity [299]
No

Polygonaceae

Homalocladium platycladum Bailey/Carquejinha
Decoction/Stalk
Analgesic [23]
Antibacterial [300], analgesic, anti-inflammatory [301]
No

Rosaceae

Rosa centifolia L./Rosa branca
Decoction/Leaf, flower
Analgesic [23]
Anti-inflammatory and antiarthritic [302], antioxidant [303], antiulcer and cytoprotective [304]
No

Sanguisorba minor Scop./Pimpinela
Tea/Leaf, flower
Calmative [102]
Inhibitory action of acetylcholinesterase [305]
Yes

Rubiaceae

Coffea arabica L./Café
Cataplasm/Leaf
Headache [101]
Antioxidant [306], antioxidant and stimulant [307]
Yes

Cinchona officinalis L./
Decoction/Bark
Analgesic [23]
Not found
Not found

Psychotria viridis/chacrona, ayahuasca
Infusion/Leaves
Hallucinogen, emotional and cognitive sensory changes, psychoactive [267–269] aid in treatment of abuse of other Psychoactives [268]
Hallucinogen [308]

Alibertia sp./Marmelo
Decoction, infusion/Root, fruit
Calmative [118]
Not found
Not found

Rutaceae (5)

Casimiroa edulis Llave & Lex./Zapote blanco

Sedative [102]
Vasodilator [309, 310], anticoagulants and antimicrobial [310], anxiolytic [311], anxiolytic and antidepressant [312]
No

Citrus aurantium L./Laranja
Decoction/Bark
Headache and calmative [36, 48, 56, 59, 78, 90, 194]
Low toxicity [313], anxiolytic [314, 315]
Yes

Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f./Limão-galego,

Calmative and sedative [90, 194]
Neuroprotective activity and anticonvulsant [316]
Yes

Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck
Infusion/Leaf
Calmative, analgesic and sedative [23, 27, 49, 74, 99, 138]
Antioxidant, antithyroid and antihyperglycemic [317]
Yes

Ruta graveolens L./Arruda
Decoction, maceration/Leaf
Calmative and headache [23, 39, 48, 57, 60, 102]
Antimicrobial [318], antioxidant [319], antitumor [320], antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic [321]
Yes

Solanaceae

Atropa belladonna L./Beladona
Decoction/Leaf
Calmative [23]
Healing [322]
Yes

Cestrum sendtnerianum Mart./Guiné-do-campo
Infusion, Decoction/Leaf
Sedative [67]
Not found
Not found

Solanum americanum Mill./Maria-pretinha
Decoction/Leaf, Stalk
Sedative, Analgesic [45, 67]
Antifungal [323], antioxidant and anticancer [324]
Yes

Solanum cernuum Vell/Pata de mono

Calmative [87]
Antiulcerogenic [325]
Yes

Umbelliferae

Anethum graveolens/Eneldo

Sedative [68]
Antifungal [326], anticonvulsant [327], anti Helicabator pylori [328], decreased fertility rate [329], participates in the regulation of Diabetes Mellitus [330]
Yes

Coriandrum sativum/Cilantro
Infusion/Leaf, fruit
Stimulant [68]
Antioxidant [40], sedative and muscle relaxant [43], antibacterial [331], antiarthritic [332], anti-inflamatory [41], antifungal [333], hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic [334]
Yes

Petroselinum hortense/Salsa da horta

Sedative [107]
Diuretic and hypotensive [335]
Yes

Urticaceae

Urera baccifera (L.)/Urtiga
Leaf
Analgesic [36]
Antioxidant [336], anti-inflamatory [337]
No

Verbenaceae (6)

Aloysia citrodora Palau/Erva luíza

Calmative [74, 286]
Not found.
Not found

Aloysia triphylla Royle/Cidrão
/Leaf
Sedative [55, 235]
Treatment of intestinal disorders [338], anti Trypanosoma Cruzi [339], anti-Helicobacter pylori [328], antibacterial [340], spasmolytic and anti-inflammatory [341], antinociceptive [244]
Yes

Lantana camara L./Camará
Infusion, Decoction/Leaf
Headache [132]
Antibacterial [342], antioxidant [343], anxiolytic [344]
Yes

Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E. Br./Erva-cidreira
Leaf/Infusion
Headache and calmative [39, 49, 55, 58–61, 75, 77, 94, 97]
Antimicrobial [345], antispasmodic [346], anxiolytic [347], anesthetic [348]
No

Lippia gracillis Schauer/Alecrim da serra
Infusion/Leaf
Headache [132]
Antimicrobial [349], antitumor [350], anti-inflammatory and healing [351]
Yes

Verbena cf. minutifolia Phil./
Decoction/Complete plant
Analgesic [23]
Not found
Not found

Violaceae

Viola odorata L./

Sedative [87]
Antitumoral [352], antioxidant and antibacterial [353], antimicrobial [354], vasodilator and antidyslipidemic [355]
Yes

Zingiberaceae

Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) Burtt & Smith/Colônia
Decoction/Leaf
Calmative [39, 48, 49, 101]
Hypotensive [356], vasodilator [357], antioxidant [358]
Yes

Zingiber officinale Rosc./Gengibre
Decoction/root
Analgesic and headache [23, 57, 78]
Antioxidant [359], antihyperglycemic [360], antibacterial [361], androgenic [362]
Yes

Costus brasiliensis Schum./Cana-de-macaco
Not found
Calmative [67]
Not found
Not found

is the popular name that was quoted. was not mentioned how to prepare. is the portion used or how to prepare that was quoted.

Figure 1: The cited families of medicinal plants according to popular knowledge.

The most common indications, according to ethnopharmacological surveys, were calmative/sedative (72/167), analgesic (39/167), and headache (35/167), representing 86,2% of all indications (Figure 2).

Figure 2: The indications for use of the medicinal plants according to popular knowledge.

Ethnobotanical surveys revealed that the leaves (70/160) and the whole plant (13/160) amounted to 51.7% of all plant parts most commonly used, but, in 18% of the studied plants, there were no citations about the used part for making medicines (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Part of plants used for indications according to the popular knowledge.

The most common preparation methods provided in the surveys were infusion (59/167) and decoction (49/167), representing 63.7% of all the methods (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Preparation methods cited by population for medicinal plants.

Common effects attributed to the plants in the ethnopharmacological surveys were antioxidant (42/401), anti-inflammatory (31/401), antibacterial (20/401), and antimicrobial (17/401), totaling 31.9% (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Attributed effects of the medicinal plants according to popular knowledge.

Comparison between ethnopharmacological data and pharmaceutical tests for the same plants and compounds found differences in 52.9% (73/138) of the cases and similarities in 30.4% (42/138) (Figure 6). No pharmacological tests were found for 16.9% (23/138) of the plants mentioned in the ethnopharmacological surveys (Table 1).

Figure 6: Comparison between ethnopharmacological data and pharmaceutical tests for the same plants and compounds.

Table 1 shows a list of the medicinal plants analyzed in this study. The pharmacological effects including “anticonvulsant” and “anxiolytic” were considered to correspond to “calmative” in medicinal effects cited by population since both effects are attributed to the same action in the neural system, that is, inhibitory action. Furthermore, the pharmacological effect “anti-inflammatory” was also considered to correspond to “analgesic” in medicinal effects cited by population since anti-inflammatory agents are effective in treating pain diseases.

4. Discussion

The most frequent indications of medicinal plant use for neural system disorders in our survey (i.e., calmative, analgesic, headache, and insomnia) are associated with the most common occurrences seen in medical practice [7, 36, 47, 55, 68, 77, 104, 132, 235, 258] (Figure 2).

The plant families analyzed (Lamiaceae and Asteraceae) are in accordance with general ethnobotanical studies [4, 7, 379–382] (Figure 1), as well as the most utilized plant parts (leaves) [1, 7, 379, 383, 384], and preparation methods (infusion and decoction) [7, 253, 379, 383, 384] (Figure 4).

Despite that, the frequency of effects observed by most pharmacological tests does not coincide with those reported for the same plants when analyzed by ethnopharmacological means, (i.e., antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antimicrobial), demonstrating a high discrepancy between proven and popularly mentioned effects (Figure 6).

It is important to remember that results of pharmacological tests were not found for all the plants mentioned in the ethnopharmacological studies, although those represent a small minority (16.9%) (Figure 5).

The discrepancy rate between the effects observed by ethnopharmacological and pharmacological methods in this study is in agreement with a previous study [9] and, in both cases, a disagreement of over 50% was found. This data indicates the need for better control in the use of medicinal plants as a whole, especially in countries with a large proportion of economically backward population where such therapy is most common, such as China, India, and Brazil. However, there are possibilities that scientific studies are not enough or they are missing to corroborate the ethnopharmacological activities.

Tables like the one produced in this study can be used as a basis for the indication of medications for health professionals working in the neural area who choose to substitute alternative therapies with conventional methods. The tables can be used to maintain the patient’s health and help make these treatments more accessible to people of all economic levels [385], bring medical practice closer to the care of cultural groups [386], and expand the idea of wholeness in healthcare.

Performing pharmacological tests in the medicinal plants mentioned in ethnopharmacological studies will help avoid prescription errors based only on popular knowledge, which, despite the importance, exhibits extensive methodological shortcomings from its propagation through generations (see Introduction). Although the pharmacological tests cannot solve problems related to contamination during preparation and/or mistakes when identifying plants by unskilled people, performing those tests would decrease the problems caused by adverse effects and wrong prescriptions.

Neurological disorders present complex etiologies often with aggravating social influences, requiring special care when making prescriptions; many critically ill patients are secluded from society and require medical monitoring and medications derived from modern pharmaceutical technology since indications for complex etiologies like dementias were not addressed in the ethnopharmacological articles analyzed in this study.

In conclusion, despite the importance of ethnopharmacological data, it is important to make comparisons with pharmacological tests for the same plants, since the pharmacological studies, although few, have shown a high rate of discrepancy in the results, nevertheless, to be important to cite that the scientific studies could not be enough, or are missing, to corroborate the ethnopharmacological activities. Tables containing the plants names and their effects according to pharmacological tests should be consulted by health professionals before prescribing those medications. No medicinal plants were mentioned in ethnopharmacological data for treating complex etiology neural disorders such as dementia, indicating the need for new studies of broader geographical amplitude and pharmaceutical classes all around the world. Emphasis of these studies should occur in developing countries in order to decrease prescription errors associated with medicinal plants and increase the coverage of plant-based therapy for the global population while prioritizing people in need.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

Acknowledgments

Tales Alexandre Aversi-Ferreira acknowledges CNPq, Brazil, for scholarship in productivity research.

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