Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2021 (2021), Article ID 5599654, 15 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5599654

Research Article

Ethnopharmacological Survey on Medicinal Plants Used for Cosmetic Treatments in Traditional and Ayurveda Systems of Medicine in Sri Lanka

Dehel Gamage Nadeeshani Dilhara Gamage,¹ Rathnayaka Mudiyanselage Dharmadasa,² Don Chandana Abeysinghe,¹ Rathnayaka Gamlathge Saman Wijesekara,³ Gamika A. Prathapasinghe,³ and Takao Someya⁴

¹Faculty of Agriculture and Plantation Management, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Makandura, Gonawila. 60170, Sri Lanka
²Industrial Technology Institute, 363, Bauddhaloka Mawatha, Colombo 7, Sri Lanka
³Faculty of Livestock, Fisheries and Nutrition, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Makandura, Gonawila. 60170, Sri Lanka
⁴ALBION Co.,Ltd, Ginza 1-7-10, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0061, Japan

Correspondence should be addressed to Rathnayaka Mudiyanselage Dharmadasa; dharmadasarm@gmail.com

Received 15 January 2021; Revised 3 June 2021; Accepted 18 June 2021; Published 28 June 2021

Academic Editor: Riaz Ullah

Copyright © 2021 Dehel Gamage Nadeeshani Dilhara Gamage et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract.

Medicinal plants have been used for therapeutic and beauty applications in Sri Lanka with documented history of over 2,500 years. This inherited knowledge, which has been handed down from generation to generation, provides a largely unexplored source for the potential development of active ingredients for cosmetic formulations. Therefore, the present comprehensive survey was conducted to identify cosmetic potential medicinal plants species in Sri Lanka. Personal interviews were conducted via a semistructured questionnaire with randomly selected 30 traditional practitioners and 90 Ayurveda physicians in Sri Lanka. Data were collected on plants and specific plant parts used for the treatment of skin care, hair care, and oral care topically. The acquired data were verified using the Ayurveda authentic books and quantitatively analyzed using relative frequency of citation (RFC), use value (UV), relative importance (RI), and factor informant consensus (FIC). Results revealed about the usage of 133 different plant species belonging to 64 families in cosmetic treatments under the categories of skin care, hair care, and oral care. Majority of medicinal plants were used in skin care treatments (39%) followed by hair care (20%) and oral care (17%). Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. reported the highest RFC value (0.83) and UV (3.66). The highest RI value was reported from Asparagus racemosus Willd. and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. (1.67). The dominant plant family was reported as family Fabaceae. The most utilized plant part was stated as leaves (34%) followed by bark (14%). The survey further revealed about treatments for 17 skin-related, 9 hair-related, and 2 oral-related beauty issues. All RFC values were comparatively high for identified different beauty issues. Many herbal preparations were prepared using water as the medium whilst most common mode of application was reported as paste (37%). In conclusion, acquired information could ultimately be utilized for the development of the herbal cosmetic industry through the isolation and characterization of bioactive compounds from the documented plants while preserving the traditional knowledge.

1. Introduction

Sri Lanka, formerly known as Ceylon, is an island with an area of approximately 65,610 km². Despite its relatively small size, Sri Lanka possesses a high level of biodiversity due to its varied climate and topographical conditions [1]. As one of the most biologically diverse countries in Asia, Sri Lanka currently has 29.7% of forest cover [2] and 4,143 plant species distributed within 214 families. Of these, 1,025 plant species are endemic to the country [3]. In view of that, Sri Lanka is recognized as a biodiversity hotspot of global and national importance.

Plants have been used for treating various illnesses over thousand years through four systems of traditional medicine in Sri Lanka called Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and Deshiya Chikitsa [4]. Traditional systems of medicine play a pivotal role in lives of Sri Lankan rural population by fulfilling 60–70% of primary health care needs [5]. According to the Sugathadasa et al. [6], 1,430 species representing 181 families and 838 genera are considered as medicinal plants. Out of the total number of medicinal plant species, 174 (12%) are endemic to the country. As described by Pushpakumara et al. [1], 250 species of medicinal plants are commonly used in traditional medicine of which 50 species are heavily used. Thus, it clearly implies the importance of medicinal plants in different systems of medicine in Sri Lanka.

Medicinal plants have been used for centuries in medicinal, therapeutic, and beauty applications in Sri Lanka, which has documented history of over 2,500 years. However, many formulae for medicinal preparations of Sri Lankan traditional system of medicine are handed down from generation to generation or are found only in the scripts of old “ola leaf” books treasured by traditional and Ayurvedic practitioners [7]. Furthermore, the study on “Medicinal Plant Research in Sri Lanka: A Scientometric Study Based on Scopus Database,” highlights about the research studies of 190 plants including 22 endemic plants. It reveals that most of the conducted studies are activity-based studies such as toxicity, antibacterial, antifungal, hypoglycemic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and diuretic. This is followed by general studies such as physicochemical, chemical, postharvest, horticultural, and propagation studies of plants [8]. These provide evidence for a largely unexplored knowledge gap of medicinal plants in Sri Lanka.

Apart from the studies on “Cosmetic Perspective of Ethnobotany in Northern Part of Sri Lanka” [9], there has been hardly any ethnobotany report on cosmetic potential of Sri Lankan medicinal plants. A total of 62 plant species belonging 36 families have been identified based on the traditional knowledge and practices of local community through this study. Identified plants are used for beautifying purposes such as skin care, hair care, nail care, lip care, and eye care. Recently conducted few handfuls of research studies highlight about several medicinal plants with cosmetic potential. Napagoda et al. [10] highlights the probable usage of Atalantia ceylanica (Arn.) Oliver, Hibiscus furcatus Mullend., Leucas zeylanica (L.) W.T.Aiton, Mollugo cerviana (L.) Ser., Olax zeylanica L., and Ophiorrhiza mungos L. for the development of photoprotective cosmetic products via analyzing antioxidant activity and the sun protection factor (SPF). Moreover, research study conducted by Liyanaarachchi et al. [11] emphasizes about possible usage of Artocarpus nobilis Thw., Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg, Elaeocarpus serratus Heyne, Curcuma aromatica, and Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. in the treatment of various skin disorders such as hyperpigmentation, to obtain lighter skin complexion, wrinkling, premature aging, and biological aging by analyzing tyrosinase, elastase, and hyaluronidase enzyme inhibitory and antioxidant activities.

Nevertheless, there are only handfuls of scientific evidence available on bioactivity studies of medicinal plants in Sri Lanka that could lead to the development of herbal cosmetics [10]. Thus, it is a necessary requirement of the country to investigate the medicinal plants which exhibit cosmetic potential to support herbal cosmetic productions, innovations, and bioactivity studies while preserving the existing knowledge. In order to fulfil this knowledge gap, the present survey has focused to identify plants and plant parts used in topical cosmetic treatments of Sri Lanka under the categories of skin care, hair care, and oral care by interviewing traditional practitioners and Ayurveda physicians. Furthermore, major beauty issues treated by practitioners and mode of treatment applications have also been studied. Thereby, we believe the present study will support the development of the herbal cosmetic industry of Sri Lanka while rationalizing the ethnopharmacological usage.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area and Selection of Respondents

This survey was conducted from January 2018 to August 2019. Ayurveda physicians and traditional practitioners engaged in cosmetic treatments were only considered. Names of the expert practitioners were listed by visiting the Ayurvedic Medical Council and from 09 provincial Ayurveda Departments (Northern Province, North Western Province, Western Province, Central Province, Uva Province, Sabaragamuwa Province, Eastern Province, Southern Province, and North Central Province), Sri Lanka (Figure 1). In total, 210 expert practitioners (163 Ayurveda physicians and 47 traditional practitioners) were identified. Prior to data collection, each respondent was informed of the objectives of the study in order to obtain their consent and cooperation for the survey. However, permission was received only from 90 Ayurveda physicians and 30 traditional practitioners (Table 1). The total respondent percentage was 57%.

Figure 1: Locations of the provincial Ayurveda Departments in Sri Lanka.

Table 1: Distribution of respondents in 9 provinces of Sri Lanka.

Province
Respondents

Ayurveda Physicians
Traditional Practitioners

Northern
9
2

North Western
11
5

Western
16
3

Central
9
3

Uva
8
1

Sabaragamuwa
9
4

Eastern
7
1

Southern
11
4

North Central
10
7

Total
90
30

120

2.2. Preparation of Questionnaire

Firstly, the questionnaire (Supplementary Material 1) was pretested by interviewing 20 practitioners prior to the formal survey to understand the effectiveness of the questionnaire. Information was collected via a semistructured questionnaire under two main sections. The first section was designed to gather general information about the practitioners including practitioner’s name, gender, age, experience of the profession, level of education, address, province/district, and registration number assigned by the Ayurveda Department of Sri Lanka.

The second section of the questionnaire was mainly dedicated to gather the information on medicinal plants and plant parts used in cosmetic treatments. Major beauty issues treated by practitioners and application mode of treatments were also studied. However, information on cosmetic remedies was not collected due to the unwillingness of practitioners to disclose their family recipes. In addition, suggestions for improving the research based on medicinal plants in cosmetics were recorded. Data collection was done by personal interviews.

2.3. Taxonomical Studies and Plant Specimens

Collected plants/plant materials from the practitioners were dried, preserved, and mounted on herbarium sheets. Herbarium voucher numbers were coded from NGHC 01 to NGHC 133 as the same order of the plant list indicated in Table 2. Plant identification was carried out by comparing the deposited herbarium of the royal botanical garden, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. The scientific names of plants were validated based on the collections listed in the homepage: http://www.theplantlist.org. The acquired data including vernacular names, English names, and remedies were verified using the Ayurveda authentic books, “Compendium of Medicinal Plants, A Sri Lankan Study,” volume I to IV issued by Ayurveda Department of Sri Lanka [12–15] and “A Collection of Medicinal Plants in Sri Lanka,” issued by Nature’s Beauty Creations Limited, Sri Lanka [16].

Table 2: Medicinal plants used in topical cosmetic treatments of Sri Lanka.

No.
Family
Scientific name
English name
Vernacular name
Plant part
Potential usage
Treatment/s for
Mode of application
RFC
UV
RI

1
Acanthaceae
Barleria lupulina Lindl.
Hophead Philippine violet
Ranwan katu karandu
Leaves
S
PI
JU
0.09
0.09
0.04

2

Barleria prionitis L.
Crossandra
Katu karandu
Leaves
S, H
SH, GH
JU
0.11
0.16
0.06

3

Justicia adhatoda L.
Malabar nut
Adhatoda
Leaves
O
OH
OT
0.42
0.42
0.20

4
Acoraceae
Acorus calamus L.
Sweet flag
Wada-kaha
Rhizome
S, H
PE, SC, FA
PA
0.62
1.05
0.36

5
Amaranthaceae
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC
Sessile joyweed
Mukunuwenna
Leaves, stem
H
HH
JU
0.30
0.30
0.14

6
Amaryllidaceae
Allium sativum L.
Garlic
Sudulunu
Bulb
S
PI
PA
0.31
0.32
0.15

7
Annonaceae
Annona muricata L.
Prickly custard apple
Katu-anoda
Tender leaves
H
PE
JU
0.28
0.28
0.13

8
Apiaceae
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb
Indian pennywort
Gotukola
Entire plant
S, H
DH, HE
PA
0.71
1.27
0.42

9
Apocynaceae
Cryptolepis dubia (Burm.f.) M.R.Almeida

Wel rukkattana
Leaves, bark, flowers
S, O
MM, MB
DE
0.08
0.12
0.04

10

Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult.
Indian sarsaparilla
Iramusu
Leaves
S, H
HF, SC
JU
0.66
0.92
0.35

11

Holarrhena antidysenterica (Roxb.) Wall.
Kurchi
Kelinda
Bark
O
OH
DE
0.20
0.20
0.10

12
Arecaceae
Areca catechu L.
Areca nut
Puwak
Flowers
O
OH
DE
0.08
0.08
0.04

13

Caryota urens L.
Wine palm
Kithul
Bark, tender flowers
H
HH
OT
0.06
0.07
0.03

14

Cocos nucifera L.
King coconut/Pol
Thambili/Coconut
Fruit kernel
H
HH
OI
0.63
0.63
0.30

15
Asparagaceae
Asparagus racemosus Willd.
Wild asparagus
Hathawariya
Entire plant
S, H
HC, HH. HF, GH, AG, SC, FR
JU
0.60
2.20
0.51

16
Asphodelaceae
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.
Aloe plant
Komarika
Leaf gel
S, H
FR, PI, HF, DN, AG, EX
GE
0.83
3.66
0.80

17
Asteraceae
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L
False daisy
Keekirindiya
Leaves
S, H
HH, SD, AG
OI, JU
0.68
1.09
0.38

18

Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd.
Purple fleebane
Sanninayam
Seeds
S, H
FR, PE
PA
0.01
0.02
0.01

19
Berberidaceae
Berberis aristata DC.
Indian barberry
Daruharidra
Bark
O
OH
DE
0.02
0.02
0.01

20
Bombacaceae
Bombax ceiba L.
Red silk cotton tree
Imbul
Thrones, seeds
S
SC, FR, PI
PA, OI
0.05
0.08
0.03

21
Boraginaceae
Heliotropium indicum L.
Indian heliotrope
Ethhoda
Leaves
S
PI
JU
0.03
0.03
0.01

22
Brassicaceae
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern
Indian mustard
Aba
Seeds
S
SS, SC
OI
0.36
0.53
0.20

23
Calophyllaceae
Mesua ferrea L.
Iron wood
Na
Flower stamens
S
MB, FR, SC, FA
PA
0.24
0.36
0.13

24
Cannabaceae
Celtis timorensis Span.
Stinkwood
Gurenda/Burenda
Wood
S
DR, SC
PA
0.02
0.03
0.01

25
Caricaceae
Carica papaya L.
Papaya
Gaslabu
Ripen fruit
S
FR
PA
0.61
0.61
0.29

26
Celastraceae
Celastrus paniculatus Willd.
Black oil plant
Duhudu
Bark
H
PE
PA
0.03
0.03
0.01

27

Kokoona zeylanica Thwaites

Kokun
Bark
S
SC, PI
PO
0.73
1.37
0.44

28
Clusiaceae
Garcinia mangostana L.
Mangosteen
Mangus
Bark
O
OH
DE
0.09
0.09
0.04

29

Garcinia quaesita Pierre.
Red mango
Goraka
Fruit rind, bark
O
OH
OT
0.29
0.28
0.14

30
Combretaceae
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn.
Arjuna myrobalan
Kumbuk
Bark
S, O
PI, OH
PA
0.18
0.19
0.09

31

Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.
Beleric myrobalan
Bulu
Seeds
H
HC, HF
OI
0.72
1.12
0.40

32

Terminalia chebula Retz.
Myrabalans
Aralu
Fruit
S, O
OH, AG
IN
0.70
1.03
0.38

33
Convolvulaceae
Argyreia populifolia Choisy
Sri Lankan elephant creeper
Giritilla
Shoots
O
OH
JU
0.05
0.05
0.02

34

Cuscuta chinensis Lam.
Dodder
Agamula nathi wal
Entire plant
H
HC, HF, DN
IN
0.01
0.03
0.01

35

Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L.
Slender dwarf morning- glory
Vishnukranthi
Entire plant
H
HH
OI
0.07
0.08
0.04

36

Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br.
Goats foot creeper
Binthamburu
Leaves
S
FH
DE
0.02
0.02
0.01

37
Costaceae
Costus speciosus (Koenig) Smith
Crape ginger
Thebu
Bark
S
FR
OT
0.01
0.01
0.00

38
Cucurbitaceae
Cucumis melo L.
Bitter cucumber
Gon kakiri
Fruit
S
PI
PA
0.01
0.01
0.00

39

Cucumis sativus L.
Cucumber
Pipingna
Fruit
S
HE
SA
0.65
0.65
0.31

40

Trichosanthes cucumerina L.
Wild sankegourd
Dummalla
Leaves
H
GH
DE
0.03
0.03
0.01

41
Cyperaceae
Cyperus rotundus L.
Nutgrass
Kalanduru
Tuber
S
AC
PA
0.54
0.53
0.26

42
Dilleniaceae
Dillenia retusa Thunb.

Godapara
Fruit
H
HH, HCL
PA
0.64
1.00
0.36

43
Ebenaceae
Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel.
Riber ebony
Timbiri
Fruit
O
OH
DE
0.01
0.01
0.00

44
Elaeocarpaceae
Elaeocarpus serratus L.
Wild olive
Weralu
Leaves
H
HCL
IN
0.72
0.73
0.34

45
Euphorbiaceae
Jatropha curcas L
Purging nut
Rata endaru
Bark
O
OH
DE
0.08
0.08
0.04

46
Fabaceae
Abrus precatorius L.
Wild liquorice
Olinda
Seeds
S
AC
PA
0.27
0.27
0.13

47

Acacia concinna (Willd.) DC.

Seenidda
Pods
H
HH, DN, PE, HCL
PO
0.01
0.03
0.01

48

Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile
Gum Arabic tree
Babbula
Leaves, bark, stem
S, O
DR, OH
PA
0.01
0.02
0.01

49

Adenanthera pavonina L.
Red lucky seed
Madatiya
Leaves
S
PI, SC
JU
0.30
0.43
0.16

50

Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.
Molucca bean
Kumburu
Seeds
S, O
PI, OH
OI, PO
0.02
0.03
0.01

51

Caesalpinia sappan L.
Sappanwood
Patagi
Heartwood
S
WH, AC
PO
0.05
0.08
0.03

52

Crotalaria verrucosa L.
Blue rattle weed
Nil-adanahiriya
Leaves, shoots
O
OH
IN
0.01
0.01
0.00

53

Entada rheedii Spreng.
Elephant creepes mackay
Pus-wel
Seeds, bark, stem
S, H
PI, HCL
PA
0.04
0.03
0.02

54

Glycyrrhiza glabra L.
Liqourice
Walmee
Roots
S
SC
OT
0.52
0.52
0.25

55

Indigofera tinctoria L.
Indigo
Nil-awari
Leaves
S, H
SC, HF, HH
OI, PA
0.60
1.30
0.39

56

Mimosa pudica L.
Sensitive plant
Nidi-kumba
Entire plant
S, O
HE, OH
PA, DE
0.10
0.14
0.05

57

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre
Indian beech
Karanda
Seeds
S
SD
OI
0.12
0.12
0.06

58

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.
Indian kino tree
Gammalu
Gum
O
OH
OT
0.01
0.01
0.00

59

Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.
Red sandalwood
Rath-handun
Heartwood
S
PI
PA
0.67
0.67
0.32

60

Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd.
Ashoka tree
Asoka
Bark
O
MM, OH
PO
0.01
0.02
0.01

61

Senna alata (L.) Roxb.
Candle bush
Eththora
Leaves
S
SD
PA
0.54
0.53
0.26

62

Senna alexandrina Mill.
Indian senna
Senehekola
Leaves
H
DN, HH
DE
0.02
0.03
0.01

63

Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb.
Tanner’s cassia
Ranawara
Flowers
S
SC
PA
0.15
0.15
0.07

64

Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers.
Vegetable hummingbird
Kathurumurunga
Leaves
H
HH
OI
0.47
0.48
0.23

65

Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers.
Purple tephrosia
Kathurupila
Roots
O
OH
OT
0.73
0.73
0.35

66

Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
Fenugreek
Uluhal
Seeds
H
DN
IN
0.64
0.64
0.30

67
Hypoxidaceae
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.
Black musale
Binthal
Tuber
S
SC
PA
0.01
0.01
0.00

68
Lamiaceae
Ocimum tenuiflorum L.
Holy basil
Heen maduruthala
Leaves
S
FA, PI, FR
OI, JU
0.19
0.32
0.11

69

Pogostemon heyneanus Benth.
Patchouli
Gas-kollankola
Leaves
O
OH
IN
0.01
0.01
0.00

70

Premna obtusifolia R.Br.

Heen midi
Leaves
H
HCL
JU
0.01
0.01
0.00

71

Tectona grandis L.f.
Teak
Thekka
Fruit
H
HH
PO
0.01
0.01
0.00

72
Lauraceae
Cinnamomum verum J.Presl
Ceylon cinnamom
Kurundu
Inner bark
S, O
PI, OH
PA
0.60
0.99
0.34

73
Lecythidaceae
Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn.
Indian oak
Midella
Leaves, bark, flower
O
OH
DE
0.01
0.01
0.00

74

Careya arborea Roxb.
Patana oak
Kahata
Bark gum
S
SS
OT
0.01
0.01
0.00

75

Couroupita guianensis Aubl.
Cannon ball tree
Sal
Leaves
S
HE
OT
0.01
0.01
0.00

76
Lythraceae
Lawsonia inermis L.
Henna
Marathondi
Leaves
H
GH, HH
IN
0.44
0.64
0.24

77

Punica granatum L.
Pomegranate
Delum
Leaves, fruit rind, roots
S, O
OH
DE
0.07
0.08
0.04

78
Magnoliaceae
Michelia champaca var. blumei Moritzi
Champak
Gini sapu
Flowers
S
FA, HE
OI
0.05
0.08
0.03

79
Malvaceae
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet
Country mallow
Behethanoda
Leaves
O
OH
PA
0.01
0.01
0.00

80

Gossypium arboreum L.
Cotton
Kapu
Leaves
S
HE
OT
0.06
0.07
0.03

81

Hibiscus abelmoschus L.
Musk mallow
Kapukinissa
Seeds
S, O
MM, FA
PA
0.40
0.63
0.22

82

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.
Shoe flower
Pokuru wada
Leaves, flowers
S, H
HH, GH, HF, DN, SD, PI, FR
OI, PA
0.09
0.41
0.09

83

Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss. Waalk
Heart leaf sida
Wel bebila
Leaves, stem
S, H
HH, PI
PA
0.16
0.23
0.08

84

Theobroma cacao L.
Coco
Kokova
Seeds
S
DR, SS
OT
0.73
1.09
0.40

85
Meliaceae
Azadirachta indica A.Juss
Neem
Kohomba
Leaves, roots
S, O
PI, OH
PA, DE
0.74
1.22
0.42

86
Menispermaceae
Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr.
Calumba wood
Weniwel
Stem
S
EX, AC
PA
0.74
1.27
0.43

87
Moraceae
Fiscus racemosa L.
Country fig
Attikka
Leaves
S
FR, SD
PA
0.46
0.65
0.25

88
Moringaceae
Moringa oleifera Lam.
Drumstick tree
Murunga
Leaves
S
PI, FR, SS, SH
JU, PA
0.07
0.13
0.04

89
Myristicaceae
Myristica fragrans Houtt.
Nutmeg
Sadhikka
Seeds
S, H, O
PE, HCL, OH
OI
0.69
1.53
0.45

90
Myrtaceae
Melaleuca leucadendra (L.) L.
Cajuput tree
Lothsumbulu
Bark
S
SC
OT
0.52
0.52
0.25

91

Psidium guajava L.
Guava
Pera
Leaves
H
HH
JU
0.73
0.73
0.35

92

Syzygium aomaricum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry
Clove
Karabu
Flower buds
O
OH
OT
0.09
0.09
0.04

93

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
Indian black berry
Madan
Bark
O
OH
OT
0.14
0.14
0.07

94
Nymphaeaceae
Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f
Blue water lily
Nil manel
Flowers
H
HC
PA
0.32
0.33
0.15

95
Oleaceae
Jasminum grandiflorum L.
Jasmine
Samanpichcha
Flowers, leaves, roots
S, H
SD, FA, SCO
PA, OI
0.19
0.36
0.11

96

Jasminum multiflorum (Burm.f.) Andrews
Sambac Jasmine
Geta pichcha
Flower buds
S
SC
PA
0.06
0.07
0.03

97
Oxalidaceae
Averrhoa bilimbi L.
Bilimbi
Bilin
Leaves
S, H
PI, PE
JU
0.56
0.79
0.30

98
Pedaliaceae
Sesamum indicum L.
Gingelly
Thel-thala
Seeds
S, H
HH, HE
OT
0.70
1.12
0.39

99
Phyllanthaceae
Phyllanthus emblica L.
Emblic myrobalan
Nelli
Leaves, fruit
S, H
SC, HF, GH,
OT
0.18
0.38
0.11

100
Pinaceae
Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don
Himalayan cedar
Dewadara
Heartwood
S
FA
OT
0.24
0.24
0.11

101
Piperaceae
Piper nigrum L.
Pepper
Gammiris
Seeds
S, O
FA
OT
0.58
0.58
0.28

102
Plantaginaceae
Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst.
Thyme leaved gratiola
Lunuwila
Entire plant
S, H
AG, DN
OT
0.16
0.25
0.09

103
Poaceae
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf
Lemon grass
Sera
Entire plant
H
PE, DN, FA
OI
0.72
1.13
0.40

104

Vetiveria zizanioides (L) Nash
Khas-khas
Sawandara
Roots
S
FA
OI, PA
0.70
0.70
0.33

105
Ponterderiaceae
Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) C. Presl
Oval leafed pondweed
Diyahabarala
Roots
O
OH
IN
0.18
0.18
0.08

106
Rubiaceae
Coffea arabica L.
Coffee
Kopi
Seeds
S
EX
PO
0.12
0.12
0.06

107

Geophila repens (L.) I.M.Johnst.

Kothurubedda
Leaves
S
SD
PA
0.01
0.01
0.00

108

Morinda citrifolia L.
Indian mulberry
Ahu
Leaves, fruit
S, O
OH, EX, HE
JU, PA
0.15
0.26
0.09

109

Oldenlandia corymbosa L.
Diamond flower
Pathpdagam
Entire plant
S
PI
OT
0.01
0.01
0.00

110

Rubia cordifolia L.
Heart leaved madder
Velmadata
Roots
S
FR, SD
PA
0.43
0.63
0.23

111
Rutaceae
Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq.
Claw flowered laurel
Ankenda
Leaves
S
PI
PA
0.39
0.39
0.19

112

Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa
Bael fruit tree
Beli
Ripen fruit
S
SC
PA
0.53
0.53
0.25

113

Citrus aurantifolia Panzer. (Christm.) Swingle
True lime
Dehi
Fruit
S, H
HCL, SCL, DN, PE
In, PA
0.59
1.30
0.38

114

Citrus hystrix DC.
Kaffir lime
Gada dehi
Fruit
H
DN, FA
JU
0.13
0.20
0.07

115

Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck
Lemon
Lemon
Fruit
S
SCL, DR
JU
0.69
1.10
0.39

116

Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) T.G. Hartley

Lunu-ankenda
Leaves
S
SC
PA
0.02
0.02
0.01

117

Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.
Curry leaf
Karapincha
Leaves
H
HH
JU
0.50
0.50
0.24

118

Ruta graveolens L.
Garden rue
Aruda
Leaves
H
HH
OI
0.52
0.52
0.25

119
Santalaceae
Santalum album L.
Sandalwood
Sudu handun
Heartwood
S
PI, FR, SC, AG
PA
0.74
1.91
0.52

120
Sapindaceae
Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.
Soap nut
Gas penela
Fruit
H
HCL
PA
0.07
0.08
0.04

121

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr.
Ceylon oak
Kon
Seeds
H
HH
OI
0.19
0.19
0.09

122
Sapotaceae
Mimusops elengi L.
Bullet wood tree
Munamal
Bark
O
OH
DE
0.69
0.69
0.33

123
Solanaceae
Datura metel L.
Datura
Attana
Roots
O
OH
PO
0.01
0.01
0.00

124

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal
Indian ginseng
Amukkra
Roots
S
AG
OT
0.04
0.03
0.02

125
Symplocaceae
Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S. Moore

Bombu
Bark
O
OH
DE
0.01
0.01
0.00

126
Theaceae
Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze
Tea
Thae
Tender leaves
S
WR
OT
0.13
0.13
0.06

127
Vitaceae
Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr.
Bandicoot berry
Gurulla
Leaves
S
SD, SC
PA
0.01
0.02
0.01

128
Zingiberacea
Alpinia malaccensis (Burm.f.) Roscoe

Rankihiriya
Flower buds
O
OH
JU
0.01
0.01
0.00

129

Curcuma aromatic Salisb.
Wild turmeric
Kasthuri kaha
Rhizome
S
SC
PA
0.67
0.67
0.32

130

Curcuma longa L.
Turmeric
Ath kaha
Rhizome
S
SC
PA
0.70
0.70
0.33

131

Curcuma zedoaria (christm.) Roscoe
Zedoary
Haran kaha
Rhizome
S
SC, FA
PA
0.05
0.08
0.03

132

Kaempferia galanga L.
Java galanga
Ingurupiyali
Rhizome
S, H, O
OH, SC, DN, WH
In, PA
0.25
0.65
0.18

133

Zingiber officinale Roscoe
Ginger
Inguru
Rhizome
S
PI, SC
JU
0.23
0.35
0.13

Note. RFC: relative frequency of citation; UV: use value; RI: relative importance; S: skin care; H: hair care; O: oral care; OH: oral hygiene; MM: malodour of the mouth; HH: healthy hair; DN: dandruff; PE: pediculosis; HCL: scalp and hair cleansing; DH: damaged hair; HF: hair fallen; GH: grey hair; HC: hair color; SCO: scalp cooling; SC: skin complexion; PI: pimples; FR: freckles; HE: healing; AG: aging; SD: skin discoloration; AC: acne; DR: skin dryness; EX: exfoliate; SS: soften the skin; INF: infections; MB: malodour of the body; SCL: skin cleansing; SH: skin health; WH: whitening; WR: wrinkles; FA: fragrant agent; FH: foot health; PA: paste; JU: juice; OI: oil; DE: decoction; PO: powder; IN: infusion; GE: gel; SA: salad; OT: others. Plants used in commercial herbal cosmetic products in Sri Lanka.

2.4. Quantitative Analysis of Information

The traditional knowledge of medicinal plant usage in cosmetic treatments was quantitatively analyzed using the relative frequency of citation, use value, factor informant consensus, and relative importance as standard methods described by Hoffman and Gallaher, [17] and Vitalini et al. [18].

2.4.1. Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC)

RFC determined the agreement among the informants on the use of medicinal plants. Furthermore, this index shows the local importance of each species. The value of RFC for species is based on the citing percentage of informants for that particular plant species [19]. The RFC was calculated using following formula:

where “FC” is the number of informants mentioned the species while “N” indicates the total number of informants participated in the survey.

2.4.2. Use Value (UV)

UV is a good indicator to estimate all the possible uses of a plant species without considering its RFC. It demonstrates the relative importance of plant species known locally, considering the number of uses mentioned by an informant. High values (>1∼) indicate the various use reports for a plant while near zero values highlight the less use reports. However, UV does not distinguish whether a plant is used for single or multiple purposes [20].

This was calculated by following formula:

where “Ui” is the total number of uses mentioned by each informant for a given species “i” and “N” is the total number of informants participated in the survey.

2.4.3. Factor Informant Consensus (FIC)

FIC indicates the homogeneity of the information on the use of plants to treat the different types of beauty issues. Higher FIC values (higher when closer to 1) describe the well-defined selection criterion, and/or information is exchanged between informants. If informants do not exchange information about plants’ uses, FIC values will be near to zero [21].

FIC was calculated as follows:

where “nur” depicts the number of use citations in each category while “nt” indicates the number of used taxa.

2.4.4. Relative Importance (RI)

The following formula was used to calculate the RI:

where NUC = number of use categories of a given species/total number of use categories of the most versatile species. NT = types of uses attributed to a given species/total number of types of uses attributed to the most important taxon.

2.4.5. Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistics were used to present the collected data of the survey. Correlation analysis based on simple linear regression between RFC and UV, RFC and RI, and UV and RI was performed. Statistical significance was set at 5%. The programmes used were Microsoft Excel 2016 and Minitab 17.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. General Analysis

3.1.1. Demographic Information of the Informants

A total 120 of informants were interviewed and categorized into different demographic categories as listed in Table 3. There were 43.33% male informants and 56.67% female informants. Most informants were in the 41–50 age group followed by 51–60, 30–40, and 60 < age groups. It was reported as 52.5%, 26.67%, 14.17%, and 6.67%, respectively. On the basis on experience, 37.5% of informants had more than 20 years’ experience while 10.00% of informants had less than 5 years’ experience. And 30.83% and 21.67% of informants had the experience between 11–20 and 5–10 years, respectively. 50.83% of informants had a bachelor’s degree whereas 24.17% had a bachelor’s degree with postgraduate education. Furthermore, 25.00% of informants had the inherited knowledge from their families which is known as indigenous knowledge.

Table 3: Demographic information about informants.

Parameter
Percentage (%)

Gender

    Male
43.33

    Female
56.67

Age group (years)

    30–40
14.17

    41–50
52.5

    51–60
26.67

    60<
6.67

Experience (years)

    <5
10.00

    5–10
21.67

    11–20
30.83

    20<
37.5

Education

    Inherited from family (indigenous)
25.00

    Bachelor
50.83

    Bachelor + postgraduate
24.17

3.1.2. Plant Families

A total of 133 different plant species belonging to 64 families were utilized in cosmetic treatments. Of these, 72 plant species are currently used in commercialized herbal cosmetic products in Sri Lanka [22]. The most dominant family was reported as family Fabaceae (21 species, 16%). This was followed by Rutaceae (8 species, 6%); Malvaceae and Zingiberaceae (6 species per each, 5%); Rubiaceae (5 species, 4%); Convolvulaceae, Lamiaceae, and Myrtaceae (4 species per each, 3%); Acanthaceae, Apocynaceae, Arecaceae, Combretaceae, Cucurbitaceae, and Lecythidaceae (3 species per each, 2%); Asteraceae, Celastraceae, Clusiaceae, Oleaceae, Poaceae, Sapindaceae, and Solanaceae (2 species per each, 2%); and one species each for the rest of the families. Table 2 lists the medicinal plants used in cosmetic treatments by traditional and Ayurveda practitioners of Sri Lanka. Moreover, the greatest utilization of medicinal plants in family Fabaceae under different disciplines such as Ayurveda, traditional systems of medicine, and medicinal plant-related industries in Sri Lanka has also been reported by Napagoda et al. [4], Nirmalan [9], Kankanamalage et al. [23], and Dharmadasa et al. [24].

3.1.3. Different Plant Parts Used in Cosmetic Treatments

As shown in Figure 2, a wide range of plant parts were used for cosmetic treatments in Sri Lanka. Identified plant parts were described as leaves, bark, seeds, fruits, roots, flowers, rhizome, stem, heartwood, flower buds, tuber, gum, fruit rind, shoots, bulb, flower stamens, fruit kernel, inner bark, leaf gel, pods, thorns, and wood. The most utilized plant part was stated as leaves (34%). This was followed by bark (14%), seeds (12%), fruit (11%), roots (8%), flowers (7%), rhizome (5%), stem (4%), heartwood (3%), flower buds (2%), tuber, gum, fruit rind, shoots (2% per each), bulb, flower stamens, fruit kernel, inner bark, leaf gel, pods, thorn, and wood (1% per each), respectively. However, usage of entire plant was recorded as 6%. In line with the studies of Napagoda et al. [4], Kumarasinghe [7], Nirmalan [9], Kankanamalage et al. [23], and Dharmadasa et al. [24], leaves were the commonest part of plants used in different treatments of Ayurveda, traditional systems of medicine, and medicinal plant-based industries in Sri Lanka. Moreover, Kumarasinghe, [7] stated that availability of most effective ingredients in leaves results in the highest usage. However, more scientific studies related to this area are required. As other reasons, Dharmadasa et al. [24] highlight availability in large quantities, easy accessibility, and cheaper cost for the abundance usage of leaves. These are further agreement with scientific studies conducted by Miraldi et al. [25], Ghorbani et al. [26] and Mowobi et al. [27] from other countries.

Figure 2: Different parts of the plants used in cosmetic treatments of Sri Lanka.

3.1.4. Plants Used in Different Cosmetic Treatments

Plant species used for cosmetic treatments were classified into three main categories called skin care, hair care, and oral care. Out of 133 plants, the highest numbers of plants were used in skin care treatments. As shown in Figure 3, it was reported as 52 plant species (39%). 26 plant species (20%) and 23 plant species (17%) were used for hair care and oral care treatments, respectively. Moreover, usages of 18 plant species (14%) were reported in both skin and hair care treatments while usages of 12 plant species (9%) were recorded in both skin and oral care treatments. However, the usage of Myristica fragrans Houtt. and Kaempferia galanga L. was stated in all three cosmetic treatments. Furthermore, research study conducted by Nirmalan [9] on cosmetic perspectives of ethnobotany in Northern part of Sri Lanka confirms the higher usage of local plants for skin care followed by hair care.

Figure 3: Plant usage in different cosmetic treatments.

According to the market research report on “Organic Personal Care and Cosmetic Products Market by Product Type (Skin Care, Hair Care, Oral Care, and Makeup Cosmetics) and by Distribution Channel (Retail Sale and Online Sale), Global Opportunity Analysis and Industry Forecast, 2015–2022” [28], natural and organic skin care product category is the top billing in the global organic beauty market, and it is expected to emerge as the most attractive segment with 30.9% share by 2024, followed by hair care. Furthermore, research report on “Herbal Beauty Market: Global Industry Analysis and Opportunity Assessment 2015–2025” [29], reports North America and Europe hold the largest market share for herbal sun care and herbal skin care products at present.

3.1.5. Different Mode of Applications in Cosmetic Treatments

Medicinal plants used in folk herbal remedies were prepared and administered in various forms. Results revealed that there were 08 types of different applications in cosmetic treatments (Figure 4). These include paste, juice, oil, decoction, powder, infusion, gel, and salad. Number of plants used in each application was reported as 49 plant species (37%) as paste, 21 plant species (16%) as juice, 19 plant species (14%) as oil, 16 plant species (12%) as decoction, 8 plant species (6%) as powder, 10 plant species (8%) as infusion, and 01 plant species per each (1%) as gel and salad. However, 10 plant species were reported without specific mode of application while 12 plants were recorded in usage as fragrant agents. Therefore, these 22 plants were included under “others” category. The majority of herbal recipes were prepared using water as the medium. However, honey, coconut oil, and sesame oil were the most commonly used adjuvants in cosmetic treatments. For example, oil prepared by boiling leaves and flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. with coconut oil or sesame oil is popular application for promoting healthy hair growth, preventing early grey hair, hair fall, and dandruff. Furthermore, Cinnamomum verum J.Presl powder mixed with honey is commonly used to treat pimples.

Figure 4: Different modes of applications.

3.2. Quantitative Analysis of Data

3.2.1. Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC)

Relative frequency of citation was calculated to identify the most common occurring medicinal plants used for topical cosmetic treatments. Based on RFC values, Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. reported the highest RFC value (0.83) while Santalum album L. Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr. and Azadirachta indica A.Juss. showed the second highest RFC value (0.74). In addition, Kokoona zeylanica, Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers., Theobroma cacao L., and Psidium guajava L. signified 0.73 RFC value. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., Elaeocarpus serratus L., Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf, Centella asiatica (L.) Urb, Terminalia chebula Retz., Sesamum indicum L., Curcuma longa L., Vetiveria zizanioides (L) Nash, Myristica fragrans Houtt., Mimusops elengi L., Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck, Eclipta prostrata (L.)L, Pterocarpus santalinus L.f, Curcuma aromatica Salisb., Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult., Cucumis sativus L., Dillenia retusa Thunb., Trigonella foenum-graecum L., Cocos nucifera L., Acorus calamus L., Carica papaya L., Asparagus racemosus Willd., Indigofera tinctoria L., and Cinnamomum verum J. Presl were other highly cited medicinal plants by traditional practitioners and Ayurveda physicians. The higher RFC values of medicinal plants depict that these plants are well known to the maximum number of informants in terms of cosmetic treatments [19]. However, the least RFC value was reported as 0.01 and it was represented by 24 medicinal plants. Those were Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd., Cuscuta chinensis Lam., Costus speciosus (Koenig) Smith, Cucumis melo L., Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel., Acacia concinna (Willd.) DC., Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile, Crotalaria verrucosa L., Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb., Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd., Curculigo orchioides Gaertn., Pogostemon heyneanus Benth., Premna obtusifolia R.Br., Tectona grandis L.f., Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn., Careya arborea Roxb., Couroupita guianensis Aubl., Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet, Geophila repens (L.) I.M.Johnst., Oldenlandia corymbosa L., Datura metel L., Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S. Moore, Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr., and Alpinia malaccensis (Burm.f.) Roscoe. Unfortunately, other ethnobotanical studies conducted in Sri Lanka have not focused to this index. Therefore, it was not possible to compare data.

3.2.2. Use Value (UV)

This index highlights the connotation between the medicinal plant species and uses allocated to it [19]. Based on the results of the study, UV was greater than 01 in 19 medicinal plant species while 18 medicinal plants reported the least UV value. The highest UV value was recorded from the Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. It was reported as 3.66. This was followed by Asparagus racemosus Willd. (2.20), Santalum album L. (1.91), Myristica fragrans Houtt. (1.53), Kokoona zeylanica Thwaites (1.37), Indigofera tinctoria L. (1.30), Citrus aurantifolia Panzer. (Christm.) Swingle (1.30), Centella asiatica (L.) Urb (1.27), Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr. (1.27), Azadirachta indica A.Juss (1.22), Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf (1.13), Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (1.12), Sesamum indicum L. (1.12), Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck (1.10), Eclipta prostrata (L.) L (1.09), Theobroma cacao L. (1.09), Acorus calamus L. (1.05), Terminalia chebula Retz. (1.03), and Dillenia retusa Thunb. (1.00). High UVs indicate the frequent usage of these medicinal plant materials for cosmetic treatments by traditional practitioners and Ayurveda physicians with high use reports. Although the UV index was not calculated, ethnobotanical surveys conducted to find out medicinal plants used in anti-inflammatory remedies [4], skin diseases [7], and snake bites treatments [24] of Sri Lanka revealed about greater usage of Azadirachta indica A.Juss., in skin diseases treatments, Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle in snake bites treatments, and Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr. in anti-inflammatory remedies, respectively. According to the survey on medicinal materials used in traditional systems of medicine in Sri Lanka, Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f., Santalum album L., Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr., and Acorus calamus L. have been listed as heavily used medicinal plants in Sri Lanka. Moreover, Sesamum indicum L., Azadirachta indica A.Juss, Indigofera tinctoria L., Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., Terminalia chebula Retz., Asparagus racemosus Willd., and Centella asiatica (L.) Urb have been listed as the most demanded plant materials which show heavy usage in the Sri Lankan traditional systems of medicine [23].

3.2.3. Relative Importance (RI)

There were 12 medicinal plants which recorded the RI value greater than 1. The highest RI value was reported from Asparagus racemosus Willd. and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. It was 1.67. This was followed by Kaempferia galanga L. (1.57), Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (1.52), Myristica fragrans Houtt. (1.43), Citrus aurantifolia Panzer. (Christm.) Swingle (1.24), Acorus calamus L. (1.10), Eclipta prostrata (L.) L (1.10), Indigofera tinctoria L. (1.10), Jasminum grandiflorum L. (1.10), Phyllanthus emblica L. (1.10), and Morinda citrifolia L. (1.10). The lowest RI value was 0.48, and it was recorded from 73 medicinal plants. This may possibly be due to the less used categories and a few used attributes of these plants.

3.2.4. Factor Informant Consensus (FIC)

The results of the FIC (Table 4) showed that treatments for wrinkles and foot health improvements (1.00) under the skin care category, treatments for damaged hair and scalp cooling (1.00) under the hair care category, and treatments for malodour of the mouth (0.96) under oral care category had the higher degree of consensus. All these values were comparatively high, thus indicating good agreement among traditional practitioners and Ayurveda physicians on the knowledge and consequent use of particular plants or plant materials to treat different beauty issues.

Table 4: Factor informant consensus (FIC) for different beauty issues.

Category
Treatments for
Number of plants
Citations
FIC

Skin care
Improving skin complexion
25
63
0.61

Pimples
23
80
0.72

Freckles
13
73
0.83

Skin discoloration
9
64
0.87

Healing
8
78
0.91

Aging
7
72
0.92

Acne
4
64
0.95

Skin dryness
4
82
0.96

Exfoliating
4
18
0.82

Soften the skin
4
43
0.93

Malodour of the body
2
29
0.96

Cleansing
2
82
0.99

Improving skin health
2
9
0.88

Whitening
2
30
0.97

Wrinkles
1
16
1.00

Improving foot health
1
2
1.00

Hair care
Healthy hair
20
88
0.78

Dandruff
11
77
0.87

Pediculosis
9
83
0.90

Scalp and hair cleansing
8
87
0.92

Hair fallen
8
72
0.90

Grey hair
6
52
0.90

Improving hair color
4
87
0.97

Damaged hair
1
86
1.00

Scalp cooling
1
22
1.00

Oral care
Improving oral hygiene
34
88
0.62

Malodour of the mouth
3
48
0.96

Medicinal plants are used in cosmetic treatments for various reasons. The close analysis of the survey revealed the medicinal plant usage in 16 skin-related issues, 9 hair-related issues, and 2 major oral-related issues. The majority of medicinal plants used in skin care treatments were used to improve skin complexion. It was reported as 25 medicinal plants. Treatment for pimples was the second largest treatment segment under the skin care which reported 23 medicinal plants in usage. Other than these main two treatments, herbal preparations were used to treat for freckles (13 plants), skin discoloration (9 plants), healing (8 plants), aging (7 plants) and acne, skin dryness, exfoliating and soften the skin (4 plants per each), malodour of the body, cleansing, skin health, and whitening (2 plants per each). Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze is used to treat for skin wrinkles. Furthermore, Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br. is utilized to improve foot health. The most of hair care treatments were done for improving the healthy hair followed by dandruff treatments. It was reported as usage of 20 and 11 medicinal plants, respectively. Moreover, treatments were recorded for pediculosis (9 plants), cleansing and hair fallen (8 plants per each), grey hair (6 plants), and improving hair color (4 plants). Moreover, Centella asiatica (L.) Urb is used to treat damaged hair whilst Jasminum grandiflorum L. plant extracted oil is used for scalp cooling. Majority of treatments under oral care were reported for improving oral hygiene. Most of treatments of oral care were prepared as mouth wash. 34 medicinal plants used to improve oral hygiene were reported. Furthermore, Cryptolepis dubia (Burm.f.) M.R. Almeida, Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd., and Hibiscus abelmoschus L. are used to treat particularly for malodour of the mouth. In addition, 12 medicinal plant species which used as fragrant agent were also recorded.

3.2.5. Correlation Analysis

Correlations among different quantitative measures are indicated in Figure 5. RFC was moderately correlated with UV (Figure 5(a), R² = 0.69, ) while high correlation was reported between RI and UV (Figure 5(b), R² = 0.898, ) and RFC and RI (Figure 5(c), R² = 0.931, ), giving good linearity between variables. Therefore, this is proven that identified plant species significantly have the same importance irrespective to the methodology employed.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 5: Correlation among different quantitative measures. (a) Correlation between RFC and UV. (b) Correlation between RI and UV. (c) Correlation between RFC and RI.

4. Conclusion

To our knowledge, this was the first survey carried out to identify cosmetic potential medicinal plants throughout the island, Sri Lanka. High RFC, UV, and FIC values of medicinal plants from the current study indicate the better consensus among traditional practitioners and Ayurveda physicians about the usage of medicinal plants or plant materials for cosmetic treatments. Neither toxicity nor toxicity removal methods of the identified plants or plant materials were mentioned during the discussions with Ayurveda physicians and traditional practitioners. Therefore, further studies on toxicity and safety of identified plants or plant materials are paramount for herbal cosmetic product development in the future. Assembling of multidisciplinary cooperation of botanists, chemists, toxicologists, researchers, and biologists is suggested to analyze the interesting functional properties, safety, efficacy, and effectiveness of documented cosmetic potential medicinal plants. The present ethnopharmacological study on medicinal plants used for topical cosmetic treatments by traditional practitioners and Ayurveda physicians of Sri Lanka will contribute to preserve the traditional knowledge of medicinal plants. Also, this information could ultimately be utilized for the development of the herbal cosmetic industry in Sri Lanka.

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article.

Consent

Written informed consent was obtained prior to the study.

Disclosure

This survey was conducted as part of the research project, “Systematic Survey on Flora with Cosmetic Potential, Development of Agronomic and Post-Harvest Aspects for Selected Medicinal Plants” (project number: WU/SRHDC/MPHIL/2017/86), funded by ALBION Co., Ltd., Japan.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to all the interviewed traditional practitioners and Ayurveda physicians for their valuable cooperation in this survey. A deep appreciation is extended to the funding organization ALBION Co., Ltd., Japan.

Supplementary Materials

Supplementary Material 1: the questionnaire which was used to collect the information on plants/plant materials for topical cosmetic treatments by traditional practitioners and Ayurveda physicians. (Supplementary Materials)

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