Ethnoveterinary Study of Plant-Based Remedies for Treating Diseases in Small Ruminants in Maputo Province, Mozambique

Small ruminants, particularly goats and sheep, are key livestock species in Mozambique, and their production is mainly undertaken by families. However, small ruminants are often plagued by diseases that can cause considerable economic damage. In this context, traditional remedies, including various plant species, have been widely used to manage these diseases. The aim of this study was to explore the use of plant-based remedies and other treatments for managing diseases in small ruminants in Maputo Province, Mozambique. Data collection involved conducting interviews with 44 small ruminant breeders across 5 districts in Maputo Province to identify the plants and other remedies commonly used for managing diseases in their animals. We identified a total of 38 plant species belonging to 22 families. Among these plants, four were not identified by their scientific name. The most important plants reported were Cissus quadrangularis, Euphorbia kirkii, and Aloe sp., with Cissus quadrangularis being particularly noteworthy as it was frequently cited for the treatment of wounds. The most commonly cited botanical families were Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Asphodelaceae. Interestingly, in addition to plant-based remedies, we also identified other nonplant sources of treatment, such as alkaline batteries, which are commonly used to treat wounds in small ruminants. The use of plants for ethnoveterinary purposes remains prevalent in Maputo province, with older breeders serving as the primary custodians of this traditional knowledge. Efforts should be made to document and share the knowledge of these older breeders, ensuring that it is not lost over time. This preservation of ethnoveterinary knowledge can contribute to sustainable livestock management and support the wellbeing of both rural communities and their animals.


Introduction
Mozambique is a developing country with vast livestock potential and extensive fora where the use of medicinal plants is a viable and cost-efective alternative for animal welfare.Tis is particularly important in rural areas, where access to veterinary services is often restricted and expensive.Te livestock sector plays a signifcant role in the country's agrarian economy, contributing to economic development and serving as a source of family income and social and cultural prestige.In addition, livestock plays an important role in increasing agricultural production through animal traction and the use of manure [1].
Small ruminant production, particularly of goats and sheep, is a dominant livestock activity in Mozambique, which is largely driven by the family sector.Tese animals are often raised in natural pastures, requiring minimal investments in housing, healthcare, and food [2].
Goats are the most commonly reared livestock species in Mozambique, surpassing sheep.However, the full potential of small ruminant production has not yet been realized, as these animals are susceptible to various diseases.Tese diseases pose signifcant challenges to small ruminant production in Mozambique.Besides gastrointestinal illnesses, which are a common concern causing economic losses due to reduced growth and weight loss, there are other health issues afecting these animals.Te tropical climate in Mozambique provides an environment conducive to the spread of infectious agents [3].In addition, the sharing of pasture areas and water sources with wildlife further increases the risk of disease transmission.Overcoming these disease challenges is crucial for maximizing the potential of small ruminant production and ensuring the overall wellbeing and proftability of livestock farmers in Mozambique.
In rural areas of Mozambique, households often lack the fnancial resources to purchase veterinary drugs, which has led to a search for alternative treatments using locally available resources that can provide comparable or superior results to conventional products.Many rural communities rely on medicinal plants and other traditional remedies to manage the health of their livestock in the country.
Despite the potential benefts, there is a lack of extensive research on the use of these alternative methods for veterinary practice in Mozambique and there is often a lack of scientifc validation of these practices [4].Ethnoveterinary studies can help to bridge this gap by documenting traditional knowledge and practices, evaluating their efectiveness, and identifying potential risks and benefts.Such studies can provide valuable information for animal health professionals and policymakers, as well as for local communities who rely on traditional knowledge and practices for the management of their livestock.
Te purpose of this study was to identify the plants used to treat diseases in small ruminants in Maputo.We gathered information on the specifc parts of the plants used, the methods of preparation, the administration routes, and any reported adverse efects.In addition, we collected data on nonplant-derived products used for treating animals.Tus, this study provides valuable insights into the use of local resources for veterinary care.

Study Area.
Te study was conducted in rural settlements across fve of the eight districts in Maputo Province.Te selected districts were Boane, Marracuene, Moamba, Matutuine, and Namaacha, chosen for their known presence of small ruminant breeders and easy accessibility.
Maputo Province, the southernmost province of Mozambique, has an area of 22,693 km 2 and a population of 1,968,906 inhabitants according to the latest census in 2017 [5].Te province's capital city is Matola.It shares borders with Gaza Province to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal to the south, Eswatini to the southwest, and the Mpumalanga province of South Africa to the West and Northwest.

Ethical
Compliance.Tis study adhered to the ethical standards outlined by the International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) Code of Ethics [6], as well as the local legislation on traditional knowledge [7].Te head of the department of biological sciences at Eduardo Mondlane University provided authorization for the project after obtaining approval from the scientifc committee.In addition, authorization to conduct research was obtained from each District Ofce of Economic Activities (Serviço Distrital de Actividades Económicas (SDAE)).Before data collection, veterinary doctors and technicians from SDAEs accompanied the investigators to meet with the community's elders, known as "régulos", and small ruminant breeders to obtain their permission to participate in the study.Before participation, the study's objectives were thoroughly communicated, and all breeders who participated in the interviews provided informed consent verbally.

Collection of Ethnoveterinary Data.
From December 2018 to February 2019, ethnoveterinary data were collected during 10 feld visits across fve districts.Each district was visited twice.Snowball sampling was employed, and interviews were conducted in the local language (Xitsonga/ Xichangana) or Portuguese, depending on the informant's preference.Following the initial interview, we requested that the frst informant refer us to other small ruminant breeders who had knowledge regarding medicinal plants and other remedies used to treat goats and sheep.In total, we conducted interviews with 44 small ruminant breeders.Semistructured forms were used to capture the interviewee's personal information and data regarding the ethnoveterinary use of plants and other remedies.We also collected data on the most common diseases afecting the animals, the plants, and other remedies used for the treatment, and the specifc diseases treated, preparation methods, administration routes, potential side efects of the plants, and other treatments used.

Plant Collection and Identifcation.
During the data collection process, voucher specimens of the medicinal plants mentioned by the informants were collected from local forests or the homes of the breeders.Tese specimens were deposited at the Eduardo Mondlane University's Herbarium (LMU) in Maputo, Mozambique.
To ensure the accuracy of the identifcation process, botanist technicians from the university were responsible for identifying the collected plant specimens.Te plant names were cross-checked with the World Flora Online [8].Botanical families were classifed according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV system (APG IV) [9].We conducted research on the IUCN status of each plant mentioned, utilizing https://www.iucnredlist.org/.In addition, we explored the recent literature concerning the vascular plants of Mozambique [10] to determine the plant's endemism within Mozambique and its classifcation as native or introduced, using the same reference.

Data Analysis.
To conduct a quantitative analysis of the ethnobotanical data, we utilized three diferent calculations: relative frequency of citation (RFC), use value (UV), and fdelity level (FL).RFC was calculated by dividing the frequency of citation of a particular species (FC) by the total number of interviewees (N).Te formula used was 2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine RFC � FC/N [11].UV was calculated by dividing the number of uses mentioned by each informant for a specifc plant species (Ui) by the total number of interviewees (N) (UV � Ui/N) [12].Finally, FL was calculated by dividing the number of informants who reported a specifc use of a plant species (Np) by the total number of informants who mentioned the plant for any purpose (Ns) (FL � Np/Ns) [13].
Te assessment of the association between sociodemographic factors and the utilization of plants for treating small ruminants was conducted using Epi Info ™ version 7.2.5.0.
Te chi-square test and Fisher's exact test were employed due to their ability to examine relationships between categorical variables.Te sociodemographic factors under investigation encompassed age group, gender, place of birth, profession, religion, residency, schooling, and years of experience in small ruminant breeding.Associations were considered statistically signifcant if the P value was less than 0.05.

Demographic Characteristics of the Study Respondents.
In this study, a total of 44 informants were included, with only 7 (15.9%) of them being female.Te average age of the informants was 57 years, although 3 of them did not remember their age.Te age of the informants did not exhibit a statistically normal distribution.All the informants were born in Mozambique, with the majority (77.3%, n � 34) being from the Maputo Province.Some informants were originally from other provinces where they acquired traditional knowledge.
In terms of religion, 77.3% (n � 34) of the informants identifed as Christians from diverse denominations.Te majority of the informants worked exclusively in small ruminant breeding (61.4%, n � 27), while the remaining participants had other professions (38.6%, n � 17) such as tailor, typist, entrepreneur/trader, veterinary technician, house security guard, retired, mechanical, police, manufacturer of wooden stakes, bricklayer, traditional healer, secretary on the district executive council, charcoal maker, and store attendant.None of the informants had a university degree, and most of them completed primary school (1 st to 5 th grade) under the former education system (36.4%,n � 16).Around a third of the informants (34.1%, n � 15) did not attend school.Many of the informants had over 30 years of experience in small ruminant farming.A summary of the demographic characteristics of the informants is presented in Table 1.

Use of Plants and the Source of Traditional Knowledge.
Out of the total 44 informants in the study, 14 (31.8%) did not use plants to treat their animals.Among the remaining 30 (68.2%) who reported using plants, only 6 did not use them in the 12-month period preceding the interview.Te majority of the informants (61.4%, n � 27) used plants in conjunction with veterinary medicines, while 3 informants (6.8%) used plants in combination with chemical products.Interestingly, none of the informants reported observing any side efects of the plants they used.
Te informants identifed skin diseases and intestinal disorders as the most common illnesses afecting their animals, as shown in Figure 1.
Te study found that the most common way for the informants to learn about plants used medicinally was from their parents and relatives, accounting for 34.1% (n � 15) of the respondents.Fourteen informants (31.8%) did not provide a response to this question.Other ways of learning included from other small ruminant breeders (15.9%, n � 7), grandfathers (9.1%, n � 4), self-learning (4.5%, n � 2), and work colleagues (4.5%, n � 2).In terms of plant collection, most of the informants reported collecting plants from nearby forests.

Plant Species and Other Remedies Used to Treat Diseases in
Small Ruminants.Te study identifed 38 plant species used for addressing health issues in small ruminants.However, due to the unavailability of specimens, scientifc names for 4 plants were not determined.Table 2 provides a comprehensive summary of the plants and their corresponding ethnoveterinary uses for the treatment of diseases in small ruminants.Notably, Cissus quadrangularis, Euphorbia kirkii, and Aloe sp. were the most commonly cited medicinal plants with RFC values of 0.45, 0.20, and 0.16, respectively.In addition, other frequently mentioned plants included Aloe marlothii, Dietes iridioides, Psydrax locuples, Terminalia sericea, and Vernonia sp., all with an RFC of 0.07.Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine provides information on the FL of the most cited plants for specifc ailments.Figure 2 illustrates that the leaves of the cited plants were the most frequently utilized part, followed by the roots and other less commonly used plant components.
As illustrated in Figure 3, the botanical families that occurred most frequently were Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Asphodelaceae.
As indicated in Figure 4, the majority of plants were utilized for treating skin ailments.
Te districts of Namaacha and Matutuine were identifed as having a higher number of mentioned plant species (14 and 12, respectively), while Boane, Moamba, and Marracuene districts had a lower number (10, 9, and 7, respectively).None of the sociodemographical factors exhibited a statistically signifcant association with the use of plants, as determined by both the chi-square test and Fisher's exact test (Table 4).
Regarding the IUCN status, none of the plants were found to be endangered based on the information we gathered from the IUCN Red List.In particular, out of the 27 plants that were identifed at the species level, 26 were classifed as "least concern," while data for Opuntia fcusindica are not available.In terms of endemism, only Aloe marlothii and Alantsilodendron pilosum were designated as "near-endemic," based on the criteria outlined in the updated checklist of Mozambique's vascular plants [10].Information for the remaining species was not available.Te concept of "near-endemic," as defned in the referenced article, pertains to species occurring in fve or fewer localities beyond Mozambique.
Regarding the nativity or introduction status of species, within the subset of 27 plants with complete species-level names, only Nicotiana tabacum and Opuntia fcus-indica were recognized as introduced species.Conversely, all remaining species were categorized as native.Supplementary File 1 contains a table detailing the IUCN status, endemism, and nativity of the species.
In addition to plants, other remedies used for treating small ruminants were mentioned, with alkaline batteries being the most commonly cited (mentioned by 6 informants) for wound treatment (as presented in Table 5).Other nonplant remedies included lichen, internal shell of cuttlefsh, water from car batteries, burned lubricant oil from car motors, petroleum, and oil, all of which were used to treat diseases in small ruminants.

. Discussion
Te fndings of this study reveal that small ruminant breeding is still prevalent in Maputo Province, and that traditional remedies, including plants, are commonly used to treat these animals.Te informants' low level of education, with most only attending school up to 5 th grade, may be attributed to the long distances to schools in rural areas, causing many students to abandon their education.
Typically, individuals with low levels of schooling tend to hold more traditional knowledge.Some breeders also reported having other professions, which may be attributed to urbanization in the districts.Te informants in this study had signifcant experience in small ruminant farming, with more than half (68.2%) using plants to treat their animals.Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine    Te study revealed that a total of 38 plant species were cited for treating diseases in small ruminants.Among these plants, Cissus quadrangularis had the highest FL of 1 for the treatment of wounds.Te plant has been recognized for its medicinal properties in various traditional systems of medicine of the African continent [14][15][16][17][18][19].Its use in wound healing can be attributed to its reported anti-infammatory, analgesic, and antimicrobial properties.Te plant is known to contain bioactive compounds such as favonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, and other phytochemicals, which may contribute to its therapeutic efects [20][21][22].
Te high FL score of 1 indicates that C. quadrangularis is exclusively used for treating wounds in small ruminants within the local community.Tis fnding suggests a strong cultural and empirical knowledge of the plant's efectiveness in addressing this specifc health condition.Further research is warranted to explore the mechanisms of action and validate the traditional use of Cissus quadrangularis in wound healing.Such investigations may involve studying its chemical composition, conducting preclinical studies to assess its efcacy, and eventually conducting trials to establish its safety and efectiveness in small ruminants.
Te plant with the second highest FL was Euphorbia kirkii, scoring 0.89.According to local knowledge, applying one or two drops of the plant's sap on the skin between the eyes and ears, where the optic nerve passes, can efectively treat keratoconjunctivitis and other eye diseases in small ruminants.Tis practice is commonly known and shared by many breeders across diferent districts.Further research is necessary to identify the chemical compounds in the plant that exhibit pharmacological activity and to determine the mechanisms of action.Since keratoconjunctivitis is often caused by bacterial infections, it is possible that the plant's active compounds have antibacterial properties.
Te commonly cited plant, Aloe sp., with an FL of 0.29, is well-known on the African continent for its use in the treatment of diarrhea and roundworms.Tis genus has been extensively studied and has already led to the development of several pharmaceuticals.Other ethnobotanical studies in Mozambique have also mentioned the antidiarrheal properties of Aloe species [4,23].Similarly, studies from other African countries have reported the usefulness of Aloe species in treating diarrhea and roundworms [24].Some species within this genus have been studied for their phytochemical profle, such as Aloe vera [25].Moreover, similar to our fndings, plants from the Aloe genus have also been commonly used for the treatment of wounds in small ruminants in other countries [26][27][28].As intestinal diseases have also been a common complaint among small ruminant breeders, it is important to continue studying this plant genus, particularly in regard to its antiparasitic and antibacterial properties.
In this study, informants commonly cited Aloe marlothii, Dietes iridioides, Psydrax locuples, Terminalia sericea, and Vernonia sp., all with a relative frequency of citation (RFC) of 0.07.Tese plants were frequently employed for managing various ailments, primarily diarrhea, and other health conditions.However, it is worth noting that Psydrax locuples held a unique position as it was specifcally used for treating wounds and furuncles.
Dietes iridioides, although lacking laboratory studies, is traditionally used in South Africa for treating diarrhea and dysentery using its rhizomes [29].Another Dietes species, Dietes bicolor, has been subjected to antimicrobial tests against bacteria and fungi, demonstrating potent antimicrobial activity [30].Considering the botanical proximity between Dietes iridioides and Dietes bicolor, as well as the shared traditional use of Dietes iridioides for treating diarrhea, worms, and cough, further research is necessary to investigate the potential antidiarrheal properties of Dietes iridioides.
Mozambican researchers investigated the antimicrobial and analgesic activity of aqueous and ethanol extracts derived from the leaves of Psydrax locuples.Teir research fndings demonstrated the remarkable antimicrobial activity of extracts derived from the plant, surpassing the efectiveness of the recommended drugs.Tese extracts exhibited efcacy against a range of microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi [31].Tis supports the traditional use of Psydrax plants in African traditional medicine, where they are extensively employed for treating various health conditions such as malaria, fever, headaches, edema, rheumatism, diarrhea, conjunctivitis, mycoses, and other minor ailments [32].
Our study revealed that breeders commonly rely on Psydrax locuples for the treatment of wounds and furuncles in small ruminants.Tis practice aligns with the wider utilization of Psydrax plants in African traditional medicine for diverse therapeutic purposes.Furthermore, the potent antimicrobial activity of Psydrax locuples supports their efectiveness in addressing dermatological conditions [31].Tis antimicrobial activity is particularly valuable in combating infections that may be associated with wounds and furuncles.Te ability of the plant to target a wide range of microorganisms contributes to their potential as therapeutic agents for these conditions.However, it is important to note that the efcacy of Psydrax locuples in treating wounds and furuncles may also involve other mechanisms beyond their antimicrobial activity.Further research can explore additional mechanisms and properties of Psydrax plants to Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine enhance our understanding of their therapeutic efects on wounds and furuncles.
Our study highlighted Terminalia sericea as a remedy for managing abdominal pain, diarrhea, and cough.Tis medicinal plant is highly regarded in African traditional medicine, particularly in Southern Africa, where it holds a signifcant place [33,34].Te historical use of T. sericea roots in relieving diarrhea has been extensively recorded [35].In addition, numerous scientifc studies have substantiated the plant's ability to combat various bacteria through its antimicrobial properties [36][37][38].
While the existing evidence from traditional use and scientifc research is promising, further studies are needed to fully understand the therapeutic potential of T. sericea.Additional research could include investigations into the active compounds present in the plant and their mechanisms of action.Tis knowledge could pave the way for the development of standardized formulations and dosage recommendations.Moreover, it would be valuable to conduct veterinary clinical trials, to evaluate the efcacy and safety of T. sericea in managing the mentioned conditions.Tese studies would provide more robust evidence and contribute to the integration of the plant into evidence-based veterinary practices.
Another commonly mentioned species in our study, Vernonia sp., has a wide range of medicinal uses, including wound treatment.Previous studies have demonstrated their antiulcer properties [39], as well as their potential as antibiotics and antibioflm agents [40], yielding promising results.Recent research focused on the methanolic extract of   Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Vernonia elaeagnifolia aerial parts, which showed a signifcant decrease in ulcer index in rats, comparable to the standard drug omeprazole.In addition, Vernonia condensata Baker has been traditionally used for the treatment of infammatory and infectious conditions.Studies have highlighted the leaves of this plant as a promising natural source of active compounds efective against various pathogens, including multidrug-resistant strains [40].
Overall, the fndings regarding the IUCN status of the studied plant species are quite encouraging, as none of them were identifed as endangered according to the IUCN Red List.Out of the 27 plants with species-level identifcation, a vast majority, 26 to be exact, were classifed as "least concern," indicating that they currently do not face signifcant threats to their survival.
Te analysis of endemism revealed that Aloe marlothii and Alantsilodendron pilosum were classifed as "nearendemic," implying that they have a relatively restricted distribution.Tese species may require special conservation attention, as their localized occurrence makes them potentially more vulnerable to environmental changes and threats within their range.
Considering the nativity or introduction status, the fact that nearly all identifed species were native raises an interesting point.It strongly suggests that the local population's dependence on native plants for animal treatment may be a practice deeply rooted in ancient knowledge, dating back to a time before the introduction of other, nonnative plants.Tis underscores the longstanding tradition and extensive understanding of the plants' therapeutic qualities within the community.
In regard to the utilization of alternative nonplant-based remedies, the use of alkaline batteries as a remedy for treating small ruminants is a cause for concern, as it was reported by many informants besides medicinal plants.Tis raises the question of whether there are any chemical compounds in the batteries that could potentially have a positive efect on wound healing or antibacterial activity.
Further research is needed to investigate this possibility, as well as to assess the potential toxicity of using alkaline batteries for medicinal purposes.It is also important to educate and inform communities about the potential risks associated with using such products for medical purposes, to prevent any harm to animals.
Te use of chemical products in animal treatment may be attributed to the increase in commercial activities in rural areas, leading breeders to experiment with diferent remedies.However, it is important to carefully analyze the use of such products, as they may contain high concentrations of toxic compounds that can have adverse efects on the animals.
Interestingly, the internal shell of cuttlefsh has also been reported in another ethnoveterinary study conducted in Italy for the treatment of eye infections and diseases, similar to what was mentioned in this study [41].Tis highlights the potential for natural and unconventional sources of remedies that can be explored for their efcacy and safety in veterinary medicine.Tese fndings also suggest that the use of natural products for animal treatment may be a common practice across different regions and cultures.
Livestock breeding in Maputo Province is still largely supported by natural pastures, however, the province is undergoing rapid urban development driven by housing, industrial, and commercial construction.Tis reduction in biodiversity is reducing the use of medicinal plants and wild forage by local populations while simultaneously increasing access to veterinary services.Tese fndings underscore the importance of continuing to develop studies aimed at recording traditional knowledge for future use.
Te less urbanized and more remote districts, such as Namaacha and Matutuíne, recorded a higher number of medicinal plants compared to the more urbanized districts (Boane, Moamba, and Marracuene).Tis suggests that the lack of conventional veterinary services in these areas may be driving the reliance on traditional remedies.Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Tis study highlights the urgent need for the preservation of local knowledge as there is a great risk of losing valuable information, especially since most of the knowledge holders are of old age.
To ensure the ethical and equitable sharing of knowledge, in accordance with the principles of access and beneft sharing, we are committed to return the fndings of our ethnoveterinary study to the holders of traditional knowledge who generously contributed their insights.We will share the acquired knowledge and also provide insights into scientifc research conducted on the plants, as well as their endemic status.
In addition to these community-based eforts, we recognize the signifcance of extending our awareness-raising initiatives to a broader scale.To achieve this, we plan to build upon the existing work conducted within the university, which involves engaging with various media platforms such as television and newspapers.Trough these channels, we will emphasize the importance of preserving traditional knowledge and specifcally focus on the traditional plant knowledge within the veterinary context.We intend to highlight the ongoing studies conducted by the university and the knowledge generated from these endeavors.
Furthermore, we aim to collaborate closely with local organizations to expand the reach of our research fndings to other communities across the country and raise awareness about the signifcance of this knowledge.We also aim to emphasize the importance of exercising caution when using chemical products as many of these products have adverse efects on animal health.
Moreover, we are committed to participating in traditional medicine symposiums held in the country.During these events, we will bring this topic to the forefront of discussions and continue to advocate for the establishment

Identifcation Common name
Preparation method, application route, and ailment treated FC Alkaline battery -Crush and grind into powder, then apply to the wound.In addition, consider using water, vaseline, or lubricant oil to adhere it to the skin.

6
Burned lubricant oil from car motor -Apply directly to the wound (it also prevents fies from entering the skin).Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine of a comprehensive and unifed plan for ethnobotanical studies in Mozambique.Such a plan would facilitate the documentation of traditional knowledge, benefting both knowledge holders and the scientifc community.By combining these initiatives, we aim to create a synergy that not only respects and preserves traditional knowledge but also actively contributes to its recognition, appreciation, and application within the context of veterinary and broader traditional medicine practices in Mozambique.

Conclusions
In this study, we documented the use of 38 plant species belonging to 22 families for the treatment of diseases in small ruminants.Among the most important plants were Cissus quadrangularis, Euphorbia kirkii, and Aloe sp., with Cissus quadrangularis frequently cited for wound treatment.Notably, remedies of nonplant origin, such as alkaline batteries, were commonly used for wound treatment in animals.Te study highlights the ongoing utilization of traditional plantbased treatments for animal diseases in Maputo Province, underscoring the need to preserve and register this knowledge.
Furthermore, this study underscores the importance of conducting research on the biological activity of plants belonging to the national fora.Tis work is currently underway at the University and may lead to the scientifc validation of traditional medicinal plants, as well as the development of low-cost and accessible products for local livestock farmers who lack access to veterinary services.In addition, the study draws attention to the potential adverse efects of chemicals used by breeders on animal health, calling for further research to document both plant-based and nonplant-derived remedies for animal diseases.
In summary, this study contributes to the growing body of research on traditional plant-based treatments for animal diseases and highlights the need for continued scientifc investigation to validate the scientifc basis for such traditional practices and to preserve the traditional knowledge.

Figure 1 :
Figure 1: Diseases that mostly afected the animals in the study areas.

4
with a small amount of water, rub onto the skin, and then rinse to treat wounds.Cut a 40 cm piece of the bark into sections and add 2 liters of water.Leave it throughout the day and administer orally to treat worms.Aloe sp.leaves and combine with drinking water for treating any disease.0.02 0.02 Mar Euphorbia kirkii (N.E.Br.)Bruyns Euphorbiaceae Mulheve, Tlovo, Ilholho, and Mahombole DFE24/ 2019 Sp and B Administer 1 or 2 drops of the sap near the skin around the eyes to treat keratoconjunctivitis and other eye diseases.Grind the stem bark and apply to the eyes for the treatment of keratoconjunctivitis. 0.20 0.02 Mo and Mat Euphorbia tirucalli L Euphorbiaceae Nduthla -Sp and Ap Administer 1 drop of the sap near the skin around the eyes for treating eye diseases.Grind the aerial part, mix it with water, and administer orally to manage diarrhea., and add a cup of water and salt.Administer orally to treat paralysis, malaise, and worms.Secure the neck with a rope.the resulting smoke to the eyes for the treatment of keratoconjunctivitis. of two handfuls of the aerial part, and then add 20 liters of drinking water to treat malaise and worms.Cut the plant, mix it with cold water until the color changes, and use the mixture to wash the animal for treating wounds and skin diseases.Alantsilodendron pilosum fruit and powder-dried Nicotiana tabacum leaves.Use the mixture to apply on wounds.to the wound (with or without worms), then secure with a tie.0.05 0.02 Bo and Na 6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Figure 2 :
Figure 2: Percentage of use of plant parts.

Figure 3 :
Figure 3: Overall distribution of plant species across diferent families.

Figure 4 :
Figure 4: Percentage of plants used for treating diferent ailments in small ruminants.

2 Water 1 FC
infusion using approximately 3 handfuls in 20 liters of water, along with a teaspoon of salt.Utilize this mixture to wash the animal, apply to the ears and nose, and administer orally for treating malaise and lack of appetite.1LichenUleleBoil in water, flter, and apply to the wound.1Internalshell of cuttlefsh/cuttlebone (class Cephalopoda) Malelo Peel and grind into a powder, then blow into the eye using a reed (Phragmites sp.stem) to treat eye diseases., frequency of citation.

Table 1 :
Demographic characteristics of study respondents.

Table 2 :
Medicinal plants used for treatment of diseases in small ruminants (sheep and goats) in Maputo Province.

Table 3 :
Fidelity level for the 3 most cited medicinal plants.

Table 4 :
Analysis of factors associated with the use of plants for the treatment of small ruminants.

Table 5 :
Remedies other than plants used for the treatment of diseases in small ruminants (sheep and goats).