The Meaning of Plants' Names: A New Discovering Approach to Its Medicinal and/or Toxic Properties

Some of the vernacular or scientific names are related to possible medicinal and/or toxic properties that can reveal the presence of potential bioactive agents, contributing to the discovery of new drugs and/or knowledge of the risks associated with their use. This study sought to list the scientific and vernacular names of plants whose lexicons are related to those possible properties of plants and to compare them with the “ethno” (ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological) and pharmacological data available in the scientific literature. A floating reading of the two classical and reference works on Brazilian medicinal plants was performed, and plants with vernacular and/or scientific names related to the possible medicinal and/or toxic properties were listed. Correlations between the meanings of the species' names (lexicon) and their possible biological properties were made from their translation from Latin by consulting dictionaries. A bibliographic survey was conducted on the “ethno” and pharmacological data for each species. Finally, data from these three dimensions (lexicon, “ethno,” and pharmacology) were classified and compared using a bioprospection classification. It resulted in a list of 90 plant species belonging to 47 families. 66 of the 90 species presented “ethno” data from the scientific literature, while 46 species presented pharmacological data. Of these, 46 (69.7%) and 27 (58.7%), respectively, showed equivalence with the possible medicinal and/or toxic properties of plants according to their lexicons. According to this study, half of the plants investigated demonstrate equivalence in the three dimensions analyzed (lexicons, “ethno,” and pharmacological data from the scientific literature). Gastrointestinal and nervous system categories are among the most common in all three dimensions. Plant lexicons may be closely linked to the possible medicinal and/or toxic properties and the study of plant lexicons may represent one more approach for the search for new drugs, mainly considering the gastrointestinal, nervous, and parasites categories.


Introduction
Taxonomy, which is based on identifcation, description, nomenclature, and classifcation, is an extremely important area and one of the oldest disciplines in biology [1,2].A taxon, a grouping of defned organisms in which living beings are classifed hierarchically [3], follows a classifcation code consolidated by Carolus Linnaeus in the 18th century.Tis classifcation is based on a binomial system to defne the genus and species of each living organism.Currently, the botanical nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants is regulated by the International Nomenclature Code (CIN), but it still follows the binomial standard proposed by Linnaeus.Te binomial is composed of the genus, specifc epithet, and followed by the name(s) of the author(s).Both generic names and epithets are always latinized and follow the international code.It is important to note that although each taxonomic group has only one valid name, a group can present several synonyms according to its classifcation over time [4].In addition, consensus among taxonomists about a valid name is not always reached on the accuracy of the plant nomenclature.Tus, there are ongoing debates on the validity of a given botanical name.
In general, the generic epithet provides information on the taxon to which the organism belongs, and the specifc epithet can refer to the morphological, environmental, or toponymic characteristics of the plant, to popular knowledge of the plant, and to its organoleptic properties, biological activities, medicinal/toxic applications, or the honour of people and others [5,6].In this sense, an interesting example is Papaver somniferum, whose generic epithet refers to the family to which it belongs "Papaveraceae," and the specifc epithet "somniferum" is associated with sleep, which in turn is correlated with the pharmacological activity of opium and morphine, which are substances extracted from this plant species.
Some taxonomists were inspired by this traditional knowledge to name scientifc species.A concrete example is the species whose specifc epithet is "ofcinalis, -e," since this Latin term is translated as an "ofcial product, which comes from the pharmacy," referring to medicines sold in pharmacies in the past.Terefore, Salvia ofcinalis L., Melissa ofcinalis L., and Calendula ofcinalis L., among many others, are European medicinal species and have been known as such since the 18th century since they were described by Linneaus, who lived in Europe in that century.Another example from Brazil is the Pantanal Matogrossense plant Heteropterys aphrodisiaca O. Mach.(popularly known as dog knot), indicated as an aphrodisiac by African descendants [7].Both the scientifc and the vernacular names of this plant refer to this biological activity.Tus, the specifc epithet "aphrodisiaca" is translated as "aphrodisiac," yet the vernacular name of the species "dog knot" alludes to the canine penis after intercourse since the roots of this plant resemble the shape of a penis under such condition.
Despite this standardization of academic science, human populations tend to classify the world according to their own languages and cultures [8].According to Rodrigues and Barnes [9,10], among the Krahô people, there are plants called caprãnkohiréhô; caprãn means "turtle," kohiré "vertebra," and hô "leaf/plant."Te pharmacological efect of these plants refers to the "slowness of a turtle."In fact, these plants are used in the form of cigarettes by these indigenous people in search of anxiolytic efects.Te most interesting thing about these plants is the way indigenous people acquire knowledge of their efects.Tey observed that deer, one of the fastest animals in the Cerrado biome, after consuming this plant exhibits altered behaviour, becoming "slower" than usual.In this sense and because they made this observation, they began to apply this plant in diferent ways until they reached the cigarette, which has a relaxing and anxiolytic efect.
Furthermore, the plant Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants (Amaranthaceae) is an example of how the colonization process changed vernacular plant names in Brazil.In Ilhabela, a city on the coast of the state of São Paulo, this plant is known as caanema by fshermen communities, which in the Tupi language, "caa" means leaves and "nema" fetid.Tis name is an inheritance of the Tupinambá population, which occupied the Brazilian coast in the past.Today, this plant species has other names throughout Brazilian territory; erva-de-Santa-Maria (southeast of the country), mastruz (north), and mastruço (several locations).From this example, it is possible to notice that several plants named in native languages changed with the arrival of Europeans, and many of the names paid homage to saints such as Santa Maria.
New bioactive compounds were searched using approaches such as (i) random collections; (ii) chemotaxonomy; (iii) chemical ecology; (iv) zoopharmacognosy, and last, (v) ethnopharmacology/ethnobotany [11][12][13].In addition to these methodologies, we suggest a new approach based on the search for clues and indications about plant uses and properties in vernacular and scientifc names.Tis approach alone and/or combined with the others mentioned above could increase our chances of achieving success in the search for new bioactive molecules.Would this not be a universe of possibilities little explored in addressing traditional and vernacular knowledge?It is important to recall that this knowledge was used to "baptize" many genera and epithets, which, in fact, can give us important pharmacological clues of a given specimen, which up until now may have been poorly explored.In addition, although they are often included in the composition of scientifc names, are lexicons not overlooked, and thus poorly understood?
In this way, both the scientifc (genus name and the specifc adjective/epiphyte) and vernacular names of species can be rich sources of data on their possible biological properties/toxicity, guiding chemical and pharmacological research aimed at the development of new drugs.Based on the reading of the two classical and reference works on Brazilian medicinal plants, this study sought to list the scientifc and vernacular names of plants whose lexicons are related to the possible medicinal and/or toxic properties of plants and to compare them with the "ethno" (ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological) and pharmacological data available in the scientifc literature.

2
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Books Consulted and Selection of Species.
To carry out this study, two classic and reference works on Brazilian medicinal plants were selected, namely, "Dicionário das plantas úteis do Brasil e das exóticas cultivadas" (Dictionary of Useful Native Plants and Cultivated Exotic Plants in Brazil) by Pio Correa [14] and "Plantas medicinais no Brasil.Nativas e exóticas" (Medicinal Plants in Brazil.Native and Exotic) by Lorenzi and Matos [15] (Figure 1).Te former consists of six volumes, describes approximately 10,000 plant species, and is considered one of the most important and comprehensive publications on the subject in Brazil; the latter, although more modest in relation to the number of species, identifying approximately 2,800 vernacular names, was included in this study due to its recognized importance [16].
When consulting these books, based on fuctuating reading, that is, based on generic capture of information [17], we searched for native and exotic plants whose scientifc and/or vernacular names refer to any biological activity (medicinal and/or toxic).After selecting plant species, new bibliographic surveys were conducted on a scientifc basis, and the following data are organized in Table 1: taxonomic family; currently accepted scientifc name; scientifc name as found in the literature; vernacular name if found (original in Portuguese and translated into English); possible biological properties according to the meaning of the epithets and/or vernacular names of the plant; literature related to ethnobotany/ethnopharmacology (here called "ethno"); and pharmacology.Table 1 presents the data for each plant species that refers to the following three dimensions: possible medicinal and/or toxic properties according to their lexicons, "ethno," and pharmacological data from the scientifc literature.
Te scientifc names of the species and their families were confrmed using the World Flora Online database (https:// www.worldforaonline.org/).Both the scientifc name found in the literature and the currently accepted scientifc name according to this database were included.Subsequently, the geographical origin was verifed through Flora do Brasil 2020 (https://foradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/refora/listaBrasil/PrincipalUC/PrincipalUC.do#CondicaoTaxonCP); native species are marked with the notation (◆) in Table 1.

Bibliographic Survey and Correlations.
Correlations between the meanings of the species' epithets and their possible biological properties were made from their translation from Latin by consulting online Latin dictionaries (https://www.dicio.com.br/vermiculares/,https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/termos-medicos/CASTRENS),Vocabulário Latim-Português-Lingua Latina [171], and other bibliographies such as Brown [172], Gledhill [6], and Stearn [173].Terefore, for example, in the case of Allamanda cathartica L., the specifc epithet cathartica was used as a reference for the correlation mentioned, as its Latin translation is "cathartic," that is, laxative activity.Te correlation of vernacular names with possible biological activities was determined by the actual meaning of the word in Portuguese.Terefore, for example, the poisonous herb plant already contains the term "poisonous."In Table 1, the terms (specifc epithet and vernacular name) that were used in this translation are presented in bold text to facilitate visualization.
To compare the aforementioned correlations with the "ethno" and pharmacological data present in the scientifc literature, bibliographic surveys of various databases (Scopus, PubMed, Scielo, Google Scholar, Science Direct, and others) were conducted in December 2022.In the pharmacological survey, searches involving the scientifc names of the plants and terms such as "medicinal," "toxic," "toxicity," and "treatment" were used.Te terms "ethnobotany," "ethnopharmacology," "traditional knowledge," and "vernacular name" were used in the ethnobotanical/ethnopharmacological survey, and the search results were limited to English, Spanish, and Portuguese.Te "ethno" and/or pharmacological data that coincide with the possible biological properties, lexicon of the plants, are highlighted with asterisks ( * ) in Table 1. Figure 2 shows these data schematically.

Categorization and Comparison of the Data.
Te categorization of the data on the possible biological properties, according to the scientifc/vernacular names of plants (lexicons), the "ethno" data, and the pharmacological data on large therapeutic groups in biomedicine was based on the categorization called bioprospection that was proposed by Staub et al. [174].Accepted by the World Health Organization, this classifcation proposes 17 broad categories of appropriate use for the discovery of new drugs: antidote (ANT), andrology (AND), cancer (CAN), cardiovascular diseases (CAR), dermatologic disorders (DER), ophthalmic problems (EYE), food (FOO), gastrointestinal problems (GAS), gynecology (GYN), infections (INF), metabolic syndromes (MET), nervous system (NER), parasites (PAR), poisons (POI), respiratory complaints (RES), skeletomuscular system (SKE), and urology (URO).Finally, the categories identifed for these three dimensions (lexicons, "ethno," and pharmacological data) are compared in Figure 3.

Results and Discussion
Based on the bibliographic survey conducted herein, 202 plant species were found to exhibit some pharmacological properties considering the inherent characteristics of their binomial identifcation (Figure 1).One hundred and twelve (112) of them, although denoted some medicinal use, was not explicit on which category of bioprospection they could be related.Terefore, for example, Melissa ofcinalis L., whose specifc epithet "ofcinalis" means "medicinal," could not be categorized in any of the bioprospection classifcations.For this reason, these species are not presented in Table 1 but will be addressed later in this article.
On the other hand, the other 90 species had scientifc/ vernacular names (lexicons) highly related to direct Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine biological or pharmacological activity.Tey are presented in Table 1 and belong to 47 families; Compositae and Fabaceae (5 species each) being the predominant families, followed by Bignoniaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Rutaceae (4 species each).Furthermore, it was observed that of 90 species, 56 (62.2%) are native to Brazilian territory and are identifed by the sign "◆" in Table 1.Of the 90 species, 73 lexicons indicate some type of medicinal/toxic property according to their genus/epithet, while 19 lexicons make this allusion according to their vernacular names.Tese names are shown in bold in Table 1.Te epithets vermicularis, anthelminticum, antilethargica, toxicaria, febrifuga, cathartica, diuretica, parasiticus, antihysterica, and antisyphilitica, among others were found in the current study (Table 1).In a study conducted by Hecklau et al. [5], the authors observed that most of the specifc epithets used in the names of angiosperms in central French Guiana resemble some biological activity; they are ofcinalis, ophthalmia, pectoralis, and toxifera, among others.
Table 1 shows that 66 of the 90 species (73.3%) presented "ethno" data from the scientifc literature, while 46 species, or 51.1%, presented pharmacological data.Of the 66 species with "ethno" data, 46 species (69.7%) showed equivalence with the possible medicinal and/or toxic properties of plants according to the plant lexicons (Figure 2), furthermore, of the 46 selected only 27 species (58.7%) exhibited the equivalence between pharmacological data with their lexicons.However, of the 90 species, only 45 had scientifc studies in both the "ethno" and pharmacological dimensions, and 22 of them (48.9%),almost half, had equivalence in the three dimensions (lexicon, "ethno," and pharmacology) (Figure 2).Species with such equivalences are highlighted with asterisks ( * ) in Table 1.Tus, for example, Eugenia dysenterica DC. (Myrtaceae) was classifed as having possible gastrointestinal biological properties.Data from the "ethno" literature indicate diarrhoea and for pharmacology, therapeutic benefts in recovery from chronic constipation, and irritable bowel syndrome [125,175]; because all these sources refer to the category of gastrointestinal problems category (GAS) and/or have similarities in the symptoms and disease, these three dimensions are highlighted with asterisks in Table 1.
Table 1 shows and Figure 3 compares the distribution of the 17 categories, bioprospecting classifcation [174], considering each species in their three dimensions, i.e., lexicons, "ethno," and pharmacological data; in some cases, the same species was classifed in more than one category.For possible biological properties, according to the lexicons of plants, 11 categories were observed; the most frequent being poisonous (20 species), gastrointestinal problems (13), and nervous system (11).Te "ethno" data were organized into 14 categories, the most prevalent being gastrointestinal problems (21), nervous system (17), metabolic syndromes (17), and dermatological problems (10).Similarly, pharmacological data were distributed into 15 categories: nervous system (17), gastrointestinal problems (17 species), and dermatologic and poisonous problems (9 species each).
By comparing the three dimensions of the data (Figure 3), the lexicon difers from the "ethno" and pharmacological data, while the last two show greater similarity considering the number of categories and species per category of bioprospecting.Tis may be related to the fact that many "ethno" and pharmacological studies have been conducted with these species, providing more scientifc data compared to the lexicon, which generally has only one possible data.Furthermore, the gastrointestinal and nervous system categories are among the most recurrent in the 3 dimensions.Te parasites category was consistent across the 3 dimensions.Te category of poisons was the most frequent in the lexical dimension, but these species presented other data from "ethno" and pharmacology and, therefore, in these last two dimensions, this category was diluted among others.
Te Compositae family includes plants of diferent sizes and cosmopolitan distribution and is also one of the largest families of angiosperms, with approximately 1600 genera [124].Many species have been commercialized for medicinal, ornamental.and culinary purposes, in addition to species known to be invasive in our country [176].In Table 1, although Achillea ptarmica L. has no "ethno" and/or pharmacological studies in the scientifc literature, its genus Achillea refers to its use by Achilles "to staunch wounds," and for this reason, it has been categorized as possibly having  Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Anti-infammatory activity [61] Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Diabetes, malaria, jaundice, and hepatic disease [124] Anticancer efects, hepatoprotection, antidiabetes, antimicrobials, and cardioprotective [124] Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Antimalarial [137] Cytotoxic activity [138] Helleborus foetidus L. Helleborus foetidus L. Stomach cramps [139] anti-infammatory * and diuretic activities [140,141] Rhamnaceae (1 species)
MET (febrifuga � antipyretic) * Tonic and febrifuge * [142] Antimicrobial activity [143] 14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Te 22 species whose "ethno" and pharmacological data are equivalent to plant lexicons.◆ Te 56 species native to Brazil.Bioprospecting categories: antidote (ANT), cancer (CAN), cardiovascular diseases (CAR), dermatologic disorders (DER), ophthalmic problems (EYE), gastrointestinal problems (GAS), gynecology (GYN), infections (INF), metabolic syndromes (MET), nervous system (NER), parasites (PAR), poisons (POI), respiratory complaints (RES), and urology (URO).ND: no data found.Te possible medicinal and/or toxic property column follows the bioprospecting classifcation. 16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine properties to treat dermatologic disorders (DER).Furthermore, its epithet ptarmica, which can be translated as "causing sneezes," was classifed as a plant with biological properties related to respiratory complaints.Other species belonging to the Achillea genus, but not surveyed in the present study, such as A. millefolium L., show agreement between the three dimensions analyzed here.Terefore, Achillea millefolium L., popularly known as atroveran and novalgine, has "ethno" records on its use in wounds, as an antipyretic and analgesic [177,178], while its pharmacological activity includes anti-   Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine infammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic efects [179].In addition, these vernacular names are the same as two synthetic drugs, Novalgine ® (antipyretic and analgesic) and Atroveran ® (antispasmodic, used for cramps and pain during menstruation), since according to traditional knowledge, the efect of this species resembles them.As can be seen in Table 1, Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip.(Compositae), previously named Parthenium matricaria Gueldenst., was classifed as gynecology (GYN) since its epithet matricaria means "Mothercare" (former medicinal use in the treatment of uterine infections) and parthenium mentions labor.According to Pareek et al. [180], it has been used by traditional communities in the treatment of infertility and problems with menstruation or during childbirth, while pharmacological investigations showed its efects in the treatment of smooth muscle spasms and as a uterine stimulant.Tus, this species shows an agreement between the three dimensions analyzed here.Solidago chilensis Meyen, previously named Solidago vulneraria Mart.ex Baker (Compositae), has the ephitet vulneraria meaning wound healing property."Ethno" studies recorded its anti-infammatory property [78], while pharmacological studies describe its use as an antiulcerogenic [70].Finally, Table 1 shows that the species Xanthium catharticum Kunth (Compositae) alludes to cathartic activity; however, no studies were found in the "ethno" and pharmacological literature to investigate this possible use.However, the species Allamanda cathartica Schrad.(Apocynaceae), whose possible property is cathartic according to the lexicon, may be purgative, according to pharmacological studies [71], and has been recorded as a cathartic plant during an ethnobotanical survey [56].
As one of the largest families of angiosperms, Euphorbiaceae currently includes approximately 8,000 species distributed in 317 genera.Found all over the world, these species stand out economically in food and medicine, according to popular knowledge [50].In Table 1 the species Cnidoscolus urens (L.) was categorized as poisons (POI) since both its epithet urens and its vernacular name queimadeira, resembles the efects "acrid, stinging, burning, to burn."García et al. [181] confrmed the poisonous activity from a pharmacological study.Table 1 also shows species belonging to the genera Euphorbia and Jatropha, which have many other examples from the literature, such as Euphorbia tirucalli L., also known as Devil's Finger, which produces a toxic and caustic latex that can cause allergic reactions [87] and Jatropha curcas L. which has seeds rich in toxic oil [182].Jatropha cathartica Terán & Berland. is another example; its seeds can also cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and suppression of intestinal functioning, and a single seed can cause severe poisoning [183].In Table 1, the species Croton antisyphiliticus Mart.has been categorized as infections (INF) since its epithet resembles the antisyphilitic activity.In fact, ethnobotanical studies show similar data, such as syphilis, to treat genital infections and venereal cancers [89,90,184].
Te species Leonurus cardiaca L. (Lamiaceae) shows the relationship between the three dimensions analyzed here.Its epithet cardiaca brings the idea of "heart conditions."In fact, ethnobotanical and pharmacological studies showed symptoms and efects correlated with the heart [91,103]; in this sense, the species has been categorized as cardiovascular diseases (CAR).Te vernacular name batata-aipo-de-purga (Operculina macrocarpa (L.) Urb.-Convolvulaceae), where purga brings the idea of purgative, has been studied by ethnobotanical and pharmacological felds and both confrm its purgative activity [82,102], and the species has been classifed as for gastrointestinal problems (GAS).As can be seen in Table 1, the species Strychnos nux-vomica L. (Loganiaceae) has both medicinal and toxic possibilities since Strychnos means poisonous from solanaceous plants; while nux-vomica means an emetic nut.We know that the diference between medicine and poison is subtle and that many properties that are apparently harmful can be used therapeutically, as indicated, for example, by the epithets nux vomica, whose emetic property has been recorded in ethnobotanical studies [81], and the toxic property in pharmacological surveys [108].In the literature, a clear example of this is Physostigma venenosum Balf., which, although it has the specifc epithet venenosum, has already been used as a medicine (physostigmine) in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease [109].
In Table 1, we can observe other plants that have "ethno" studies equivalent to their lexicons and could be studied In addition to the 90 species listed in Table 1, another 112 were found in the works analyzed here.Although they do not show a direct correlation between their names (genus, epithet, and vernacular name) and a possible biological activity, they present exciting names from the medicinal and/or toxic point of view.In this sense, these 112 species will be presented and discussed in the following.18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Correlation of Vernacular Names and Biological
Properties.In the present work, nine vernacular names that indirectly refer to a possible biological activity were found in this search.Plants whose vernacular names in Portuguese include the word "diabo" (devil), such as jarro-do-diabo (devil's pitcher), whose scientifc name is Aristolochia cymbifera Mart.& Zucc.(Aristolochiaceae), indicating a negative property.Tis vernacular name suggests "a pitcher belonging to the devil," most likely due to its toxicity.Tis plant, in particular, is known for its carcinogenic and nephrotoxic properties as a member of the Aristolochiaceae family [185].Other species in this category include herva-dodiabo (devil's herb), Elephantopus mollis Kunth.(Compositae), and café-do-diabo (devil's cofee), Casearia guianensis (Aubl.)Johnson (Salicaceae).
All of the abovementioned names are vague, precluding a correlation between them and possible biological activity despite providing some type of information on medicinal properties and/or toxicity.

Correlation of Genera and Biological
Properties.In this work, 51 species whose genera refer to medicinal uses and/or toxicity were recorded.Translations of these terms for possible medicinal and/or toxic potentials were based on readings of Latin dictionaries, as described in the Methods section.Many of them refer to historical facts in medicine, including the genus Herniaria of H. paico Molina (Amaranthaceae), which means "hernia rupture," a term previously used in medicine, as well as Angelica archangelica L. (Apiaceae).In fact, a review shows us dozens of biological activities attributed to this plant from contemporary studies [186], whose genus means "healing power."Consolida major Garsault (Boraginaceae) is an old Latin name used for "curative drugs."Matricaria proealta (Matricaria praealta Poir.) (Compositae) refers to "maternal care" (previously used in medicine to treat uterine infections).Furthermore, various genera refer to toxic properties, such as Cerbera triphylla Rudge (Apocynaceae), a genus referring to the term Cerberus, which means poisonous, and Toxicodendron divaricatum Greene, where Toxicodendron means poisonous tree.Te term Aethusa of the species A. cynapium L. means "burning, due to its pungency."

Correlation of Epithets and Biological
Properties.In total, 52 species were found in this search, with the following epithets: ofcinalis, ofcinale, ofcinarum, medica, medicinalis, salutaris, or ipecacuanha.All of these terms refer to some medicinal activity, albeit without a specifc reference.
Te terms ofcinale and ofcinarum can be translated as synonyms of ofcinalis and have the same meaning.Most, or more specifcally, 90% of these 52 species have one of these three epithets.In fact, some of these species have already been widely studied and their medicinal activities have been established, for example, Melissa ofcinalis L., which reduces depression, anxiety, and stress and acts on sleep disorders [187]; Mikania ofcinalis Mart.as an anti-infammatory, analgesic, and antibacterial [188]; and Calendula ofcinalis Hohen.as anti-infammatory [189].
3.4.More than One Term Indicating Some Biological Activity.Some names are related to biological activity in more than one term (genus/epithet/vernacular name).Terefore, in the case of the species Avicennia ofcinalis L., both terms contain this information and Avicennia refers to Avicena (980-1037), an Arabic philosopher and physician, while its epithet ofcinalis has already been discussed in the previous section.Valeriana ofcinalis L., whose genus means "health (valere)," was named in medieval times for its medicinal use.Artemisia absinthium L., whose genus means "female pains," refers to the Goddess Artemisia and its epithet absinthium is a Greek term that refers to the aromatic herb used in medicine.Althaea ofcinalis L., whose genus mentions "healer," was named by Teophrastus.

Limitations of the Present Study.
One of the limitations of the present study is the translation of the Latin term "gender" and/or "specifc epithet" into a possible biological property.For example, the epithet lumbricoides may be associated with the worm format (roundworm) but also with some biological activity related to this worm, such as being worm-like.Te same is true for Ilex fertilis Reissek and Avena sterilis L., epithets related to plant fertility and sterility, respectively.However, these characteristics could be as closely related to the characteristics of the plant as to its use.Tus, "ethno" and pharmacological studies can help clarify the possible properties of plant lexicons.
However, the intended analysis, comparing the possible biological property of the plant from its lexicon with ethno and pharmacological studies, was hampered since few "ethno" and pharmacological studies were located in the scientifc literature, 66 and 46 in 90 plants, respectively.Te pharmacological studies found in the scientifc literature were not based on the possible biological activities investigated here, that is, the fact that the species Blutaparon vermiculare (L.) Mears has not been investigated for possible worming activity does not mean that it does not have this activity.Finally, most of the time, the lexicon refers only to a possible biological activity, while many uses can be attributed to the same species, both from an "ethno" and a pharmacological point of view.All these factors limited the Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine analysis of this study, but despite them, a high percentage of coincidence was observed considering the three dimensions for 48.9% of the investigated plants.
3.6.Future Perspectives.Te data collected in the present study favor new bioprospecting investigations that consider, in addition to the approaches already used (at random; collecting orientated by chemotaxonomy; biorational collecting, guided by chemical ecology; and collecting based on traditional knowledge, known as ethnopharmacology), another approach that basically considers plant lexicons.Te sum of these approaches when choosing a future plant species to be tested by pharmacology and phytochemistry can and should increase the chances of achieving success in the search for new bioactive potentials.

Conclusions
In the present review, two classical Brazilian books on native and exotic plants were consulted and based on both, 10,394 plant species were collected and analyzed by fuctuating reading, allowing to associate scientifc and vernacular names with biological activity.Furthermore, it was observed that according to the classic literature of medicinal plants, a high rate of concordance between scientifc names and biological activity was observed, which was further validated by elegant ethnopharmacological and pharmacological studies.According to this study, 22 (48.9%) of the 45 plants surveyed showed equivalence in the three dimensions (lexicon, "ethno," and pharmacology).We, therefore, conclude that plant lexicons may be closely linked to the possible medicinal and/or toxic properties of plants, and thus it is conceivable that plant lexicons may represent one additional approach for the characterization of new drugs.Terefore, in addition to data extracted from ethnopharmacology, random, or chemotaxonomy, lexicons may represent an interesting method to guide medicinal plant research.Terefore, based on a robust number of analyzed species, it was possible to conclude that plant lexicons were correlated with scientifc names and, more importantly, with medicinal, pharmacological, or toxic properties.Finally, lexicons may represent an important approach for the search of new drugs, mainly directed to gastrointestinal, nervous, and parasites diseases.

Figure 1 :
Figure 1: Te two literary works from which the 202 plant species were extracted.Te 90 plant species whose lexicons directly allude to a possible biological activity are analyzed in the present study.

4
� the name, resedo, in Pliny refers to its use in treating bruises) *

Figure 2 :
Figure 2: Number and percentage of species that had equivalence in the three dimensions analyzed (lexicon, "ethno," and pharmacology).