We examined the reading and math performance of English Language Learner boys and girls in Grades 3, 4, 5, and 6 as a function of early-exit or late-exit transitional bilingual education program. Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills Reading and Mathematics scores of all English Language Learner boys and girls who were enrolled in either early-exit or late-exit bilingual education programs were analyzed for the 2008-2009, 2009-2010, and 2010-2011 school years. Results were not consistent across reading and math, across the 4 grade levels, and across the 3 school years. On the TAKS Reading test, 5 instances were present in which statistically significant differences were revealed for boys and 11 for girls. On the TAKS Mathematics test, 8 statistically significant results were revealed for boys and 6 for girls. These statistically significant differences were not consistently in favor of either the early-exit or the late-exit bilingual education programs. Moreover, the differences that were present reflected small to trivial effect sizes. As such, neither the early-exit nor the late-exit bilingual education program was demonstrated to be more effective than its counterpart.
Transitional bilingual education can be an early-exit or a late-exit bilingual program designed to help students acquire and improve English skills [
In an early-exit bilingual program, students study subject matter in their primary language and English [
Students in transitional bilingual programs learn to read in their home language and then in English [
Late-exit bilingual education programs provide instruction in students’ primary languages from kindergarten through Grade 6, along with balanced second language academic instruction [
One model, in late-exit bilingual programs, introduces the first language and the second language reading in the same year. A second model introduces reading in the first language taught first and the second language reading is introduced in Grade 2 or 3 [
In a study conducted by Ramirez et al. [
Notwithstanding, in a second study, Tong et al. [
Language for females and males can have different meanings for different groups [
Neuroscientists have discovered that male and female brains process language differently. One gender difference is that the corpus callosum that connects the two hemispheres in the brain is larger and thicker in female brains. This difference may imply that messages travel faster between the two cerebral hemispheres, thus contributing to girls acquiring spoken language easier and faster than most boys [
The number of students identified as English Language Learners has increased progressively over the last 26 years in Texas. In 1975, the state of Texas reported that a total of 25,000 English Language Learners were enrolled in school. In contrast, 775,432 English Language Learners were enrolled in Texas public schools in the 2007-2008 school year, accounting for 16.6% of the total student population in Texas public schools [
In this research investigation, the extent to which boys and girls responded differentially to early-exit and to late-exit transitional bilingual education programs was examined. The reading and math performance of English Language Learner boys and girls in Grades 3, 4, 5, and 6 were analyzed separately. Furthermore, four school years of statewide data were examined to ascertain the extent to which trends might be present in the performance of English Language Learner boys and girls. Because the Texas Education Code, §29.051, contends that “public school classes in which instruction are
Given the growing number of English Language Learners, both nationally and particularly in the State of Texas, research into the efficacy of bilingual education programs is sorely needed. Furthermore, under the No Child Left Behind Act, English language proficiency standards and state assessments are mandated in every state. As such, results of this study could be informative for policymakers and educational leaders alike. Should English Language Learner boys and girls respond in a differential manner by grade level to early-exit or to late-exit transitional bilingual education programs, changes could be made to existing transitional bilingual education programs.
For this investigation of the academic achievement of English Language Learners based on participation in a traditional early-exit or a late-exit bilingual program, two research questions were addressed: (a) What is the difference in reading achievement for Grades 3, 4, 5, and 6 English Language Learner boys and girls who participated in early-exit and late-exit bilingual programs? And (b) What is the difference in the math achievement for Grades 3, 4, 5, and 6 English Language Learner boys and girls who participated in early-exit and late-exit bilingual programs? Each question was repeated for the 3 school years of statewide data (i.e., 2008-2009, 2009-2010, and 2010-2011) analyzed in this investigation.
For the purpose of this study, archival data were requested and received from the Texas Education Agency Public Education Information Management System for English Language Learner boys and girls in Grades 3, 4, 5, and 6 who were enrolled in a bilingual education program in Texas public schools for the 2008-2009, 2009-2010, and 2010-2011 school years. The data we received were cross-sectional data and not longitudinal data. As a result, the students whose data were analyzed were different students from grade level to grade level. The students whose data were analyzed herein were English Language Learner boys and girls who were enrolled in Texas public schools and who participated in either an early-exit or a late-exit bilingual program. The particular type of bilingual education program was a function of the school system in which students were enrolled. As such, students were not randomly assigned but rather were enrolled in the bilingual education program type that was implemented in their particular school district. Students whose reading and math scores were not analyzed in this research investigation were English Language Learners who were enrolled in either charter or private schools.
The dependent variables we analyzed in this research study were Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) Reading and Mathematics scores for 3 school years (i.e., 2008-2009, 2009-2010, and 2010-2011). The test score data that were analyzed were test scores from the English version of the TAKS. The Texas Education Agency Public Education Information Management System gathers extensive data on students, teachers, and schools and makes these data available upon request. Extensive information regarding the psychometric qualities of the TAKS Reading and Mathematics assessments can be located on the Texas Education Agency website.
The first term of note is that of what constitutes an English Language Learner. In Texas, the Commissioner’s Rules Concerning State Plan for Educating English Language Learners Texas Administrative Code, §89.1203, defines students who are English Language Learners as follows: “A person who is in the process of acquiring English and has another language as the first native language” [ Transitional bilingual/early-exit is a bilingual program model that serves a student identified as limited English proficient in both English and Spanish, or another language, and transfers the student to English-only instruction. This model provides instruction in literacy and academic content areas through the medium of the student’s first language, along with instruction in English oral and academic language development. Nonacademic subjects such as art, music, and physical education may also be taught in English. Exiting of a student to an all-English program of instruction will occur no earlier than earlier than two years or later than five years after the student enrolls in school ([
Finally, a third important definition is that of the transitional late-exit bilingual education program, which is defined by the Texas Education Agency as follows. Transitional bilingual/late-exit is a bilingual program model that serves a student identified as limited English proficient in both English and Spanish, or another language, and transfers the student to English-only instruction. Academic growth is accelerated through cognitively challenging academic work in the student’s first language along with meaningful academic content taught through the student’s second language, English. The goal is to promote high levels of academic achievement and full academic language proficiency in the student’s first language and English. A student enrolled in a transitional bilingual/late-exit program is eligible to exit the program no earlier than six years or later than seven years after the student enrolls in school ([
To address each research question, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedure was calculated. Its underlying assumptions of data normality and homogeneity of variance were checked for each instance of its use. For the majority of cases, the underlying assumptions were met [
With respect to the 2009 school year administration for boys, a statistically significant difference was not revealed in the average TAKS Reading raw scores as a function of early-exit versus late-exit bilingual programs,
Descriptive statistics for the 2009, 2010, and 2011 TAKS Reading scores for Grade 3 boys and girls by bilingual education program.
Year, gender, and bilingual education program |
|
M | SD |
---|---|---|---|
2009 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 14,850 | 26.84 | 7.48 |
Late-exit | 9,458 | 26.82 | 7.35 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 14,104 | 27.82 | 7.08 |
Late-exit | 9,382 | 28.58 | 6.53 |
2010 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 14,708 | 27.00 | 7.50 |
Late-exit | 9,140 | 26.91 | 7.55 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 13,698 | 28.01 | 7.07 |
Late-exit | 8,873 | 28.39 | 6.69 |
2011 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 14,904 | 26.50 | 7.74 |
Late-exit | 7,298 | 27.12 | 7.28 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 14,362 | 27.70 | 7.11 |
Late-exit | 7,123 | 28.58 | 6.64 |
Concerning the 2010 school year for boys, a statistically significant difference was not present for Grade 3 boys in their TAKS Reading raw scores as a function of bilingual program enrollment,
Regarding the 2011 school year, a statistically significant difference was revealed in Grade 3 boys’ average TAKS Reading raw scores,
Regarding the 2009 school year, a statistically significant difference was not present in Grade 4 English Language Learner boys’ average TAKS Reading raw scores,
Descriptive statistics for the 2009, 2010, and 2011 TAKS Reading scores for grade 4 boys and girls by bilingual education program.
Year, gender, and bilingual education program |
|
M | SD |
---|---|---|---|
2009 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 11,433 | 28.20 | 8.91 |
Late-exit | 9,435 | 28.14 | 8.68 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 10,475 | 29.76 | 8.33 |
Late-exit | 8,983 | 30.00 | 7.86 |
2010 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 11,798 | 28.31 | 8.49 |
Late-exit | 7,526 | 28.71 | 8.16 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 10,638 | 29.00 | 8.17 |
Late-exit | 7,529 | 30.02 | 7.63 |
2011 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 12,016 | 28.08 | 8.76 |
Late-exit | 6,773 | 28.96 | 8.20 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 10,882 | 28.70 | 8.54 |
Late-exit | 6,530 | 30.04 | 7.82 |
With respect to the 2010 school year, a statistically significant difference was present in Grade 4 boys’ average TAKS Reading raw scores,
With regard to the 2011 school year, a statistically significant difference was present in Grade 4 boys’ TAKS Reading scores,
Descriptive statistics for this analysis are presented in Table
Regarding the 2009 school year, a statistically significant difference was not present in Grade 5 boys’ TAKS Reading raw scores,
Descriptive statistics for the 2009, 2010, and 2011 TAKS Reading scores for Grade 5 boys and girls by bilingual education program.
Year, gender, and bilingual education program |
|
M | SD |
---|---|---|---|
2009 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 7,563 | 26.05 | 9.13 |
Late-exit | 6,983 | 25.98 | 9.23 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 6,967 | 27.16 | 9.02 |
Late-exit | 6,850 | 27.69 | 8.84 |
2010 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 7,842 | 27.77 | 9.38 |
Late-exit | 7,252 | 28.20 | 8.88 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 7,033 | 29.11 | 9.22 |
Late-exit | 6,724 | 29.58 | 8.52 |
2011 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 8,118 | 28.20 | 9.35 |
Late-exit | 5,476 | 28.48 | 8.90 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 7,288 | 29.09 | 8.17 |
Late-exit | 5,333 | 30.13 | 8.17 |
With respect to the 2010 school year, a statistically significant difference was present in Grade 5 boys TAKS Reading raw scores,
Regarding the 2011 school year, a statistically significant difference was not revealed in Grade 5 boys’ TAKS Reading raw scores,
Regarding the 2009 school year, a statistically significant difference was not present in Grade 6 boys’ TAKS Reading raw scores,
Descriptive statistics for the 2009, 2010, and 2011 TAKS Reading scores for Grade 6 boys and girls by bilingual education program.
Year, gender, and bilingual education program |
|
M | SD |
---|---|---|---|
2009 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 1,005 | 28.46 | 8.99 |
Late-exit | 1,371 | 28.45 | 8.72 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 881 | 28.75 | 8.24 |
Late-exit | 1,309 | 29.35 | 8.32 |
2010 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 1,003 | 27.11 | 9.85 |
Late-exit | 1,455 | 27.71 | 8.89 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 874 | 28.51 | 8.98 |
Late-exit | 1,342 | 29.26 | 8.61 |
2011 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 965 | 27.01 | 10.04 |
Late-exit | 1,538 | 28.26 | 9.27 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 871 | 28.72 | 9.44 |
Late-exit | 1,368 | 30.01 | 8.67 |
With respect to the 2010 school year, a statistically significant difference was not present in Grade 6 boys’ average TAKS Reading raw scores,
With respect to the 2011 school year, a statistically significant difference was yielded for Grade 6 boys’ average TAKS Reading raw scores,
With respect to the 2009 school year for boys, a statistically significant difference was present for Grade 3 boys’ TAKS Mathematics raw scores,
Descriptive statistics for the 2009, 2010, and 2011 TAKS Mathematics scores for Grade 3 boys and girls by bilingual education program.
Year, gender, and bilingual education program |
|
M | SD |
---|---|---|---|
2009 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 14,991 | 31.10 | 7.30 |
Late-exit | 9,477 | 30.84 | 7.36 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 14,226 | 31.11 | 7.02 |
Late-exit | 9,415 | 30.91 | 7.14 |
2010 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 14,709 | 31.08 | 6.87 |
Late-exit | 9,140 | 30.62 | 7.16 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 13,698 | 30.89 | 6.89 |
Late-exit | 8,873 | 30.82 | 6.79 |
2011 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 14,905 | 31.28 | 6.90 |
Late-exit | 7,301 | 31.46 | 6.74 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 14,361 | 31.28 | 6.64 |
Late-exit | 7,124 | 31.67 | 6.55 |
Concerning the 2010 school year for boys, a statistically significant difference was present in Grade 3 boys’ average TAKS Mathematics raw scores,
Regarding the 2011 school year, a statistically significant difference was not revealed in Grade 3 boys’ TAKS Mathematics raw scores,
Regarding the 2009 school year, a statistically significant difference was not present in Grade 4 boys’ TAKS Mathematics raw scores,
Descriptive statistics for the 2009, 2010, and 2011 TAKS Mathematics scores for Grade 4 Boys and Girls by bilingual education program.
Year, gender, and bilingual education program |
|
M | SD |
---|---|---|---|
2009 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 11,435 | 31.95 | 8.79 |
Late-exit | 9,434 | 31.86 | 8.62 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 10,474 | 32.18 | 8.38 |
Late-exit | 8,983 | 31.95 | 8.39 |
2010 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 11,798 | 32.57 | 7.89 |
Late-exit | 7,523 | 32.25 | 8.03 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 10,634 | 32.40 | 7.91 |
Late-exit | 7,528 | 32.55 | 7.87 |
2011 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 12,017 | 32.52 | 8.18 |
Late-exit | 6,777 | 32.98 | 7.85 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 10,878 | 32.44 | 8.11 |
Late-exit | 6,534 | 32.98 | 7.72 |
With respect to the 2010 school year, a statistically significant difference was present in Grade 4 boys’ TAKS Mathematics raw scores,
With regard to the 2011 school year, a statistically significant difference was present in Grade 4 boys’ TAKS Mathematics raw scores,
Regarding the 2009 school year, a statistically significant difference was present in Grade 5 boys’ TAKS Mathematics raw scores,
Descriptive statistics for the 2009, 2010, and 2011 TAKS Mathematics scores for Grade 5 boys and girls by bilingual education program.
Year, gender, and bilingual education program |
|
M | SD |
---|---|---|---|
2009 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 7,622 | 31.68 | 9.09 |
Late-exit | 7,030 | 30.96 | 9.52 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 7,016 | 31.68 | 8.68 |
Late-exit | 6,867 | 31.40 | 9.11 |
2010 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 7,844 | 30.19 | 10.56 |
Late-exit | 7,253 | 30.69 | 10.05 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 7,033 | 29.85 | 10.42 |
Late-exit | 6,724 | 30.29 | 9.96 |
2011 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 8,118 | 30.35 | 10.41 |
Late-exit | 5,476 | 31.00 | 10.02 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 7,289 | 29.38 | 10.48 |
Late-exit | 5,334 | 31.10 | 9.48 |
With respect to the 2010 school year, a statistically significant difference was present in Grade 5 boys’ TAKS Mathematics raw scores,
For the 2011 school year, a statistically significant difference was present for Grade 5 boys’ TAKS Mathematics raw scores,
Regarding the 2009 school year, a statistically significant difference was not present in Grade 6 English Language Learner boys’ TAKS Mathematics raw scores,
Descriptive statistics for the 2009, 2010, and 2011 TAKS Mathematics scores for Grade 6 boys and girls by bilingual education program.
Year, gender, and bilingual education program |
|
M | SD |
---|---|---|---|
2009 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 1,005 | 31.13 | 9.25 |
Late-exit | 1,373 | 30.99 | 9.38 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 883 | 31.16 | 8.88 |
Late-exit | 1,309 | 31.17 | 8.78 |
2010 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 1,004 | 32.30 | 9.39 |
Late-exit | 1,455 | 31.10 | 9.48 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 875 | 31.73 | 9.28 |
Late-exit | 1,342 | 31.85 | 9.06 |
2011 | |||
Boys | |||
Early-exit | 965 | 31.88 | 9.40 |
Late-exit | 1,538 | 31.61 | 9.57 |
Girls | |||
Early-exit | 871 | 31.56 | 9.02 |
Late-exit | 1,368 | 32.29 | 9.08 |
With respect to the 2010 school year, a statistically significant difference was present in Grade 6 boys’ average TAKS Mathematics raw scores,
In this empirical research investigation, two research questions were addressed in which the academic achievement of English Language Learner boys and girls in early-exit and late-exit bilingual programs for the 2008-2009, 2009-2010, and 2010-2011 school years was analyzed. To analyze the academic achievement of English Language Learners, data were obtained from the Texas Education Agency Public Education Information Management System. Specific data analyzed were the type of bilingual program enrollment, grade level, TAKS Reading, and TAKS Mathematics scores.
With respect to the TAKS Reading results for the 2008-2009 school year, English Language Learner boys in early-exit bilingual education programs had higher scores in all four grades. In contrast, English Language Learner girls in late-exit bilingual education programs in all four grades had higher scores than English Language Learner girls in early-exit bilingual education programs. In the 2009-2010 school year, English Language Learner boys in early-exit bilingual education programs had higher TAKS Reading scores in Grades 3 and 4. In contrast, English Language Learner boys in Grades 5 and 6 had higher TAKS Reading scores in late-exit bilingual education programs. English Language Learner girls in late-exit bilingual education programs had higher scores in all four grades than English Language Learner girls in early-exit bilingual education programs. Gardner and Desrochers [
Concerning the 2008-2009 school year, English Language Learner boys in early-exit bilingual education programs had higher TAKS Mathematics scores in all four grades, whereas English Language Learner girls in Grades 3, 4, and 5 had higher TAKS Mathematics scores in early-exit bilingual education programs. In Grade 6, however, English Language Learner girls had higher TAKS Mathematics scores in the late-exit bilingual education programs. Regarding the 2009-2010 school year, English Language Learner boys in early-exit programs had higher TAKS Mathematics scores in Grades 3, 4, and 6. However, English Language Learner boys in Grade 5 had higher TAKS Mathematics scores in late-exit bilingual education programs. English Language Learner girls in late-exit bilingual education programs had higher TAKS Mathematics scores in Grades 4, 5, and 6, whereas English Language Learner girls in Grade 3 early-exit bilingual education programs had higher TAKS Mathematics scores.
In regard to the 2010-2011 school year, English Language Learner boys in late-exit bilingual education programs had higher Mathematics scores in Grades 3, 4, and 5. English Language Learner boys in early-exit bilingual education programs had higher TAKS Mathematics scores in Grade 6. English Language Learner girls in late-exit bilingual education programs had higher TAKS Mathematics scores in all four grades. Consistent with the research literature [
In conclusion, our results were not supportive of either the early-exit or the late-exit bilingual education program as being more effective than its counterpart. Rather, our findings, when differences were present, were small to trivial, with regard to effect sizes. Moreover, our findings were inconsistent across grade level and across subject area. Accordingly, readers should be cautious about the extent to which they generalize from the results of this study. Further research is warranted, not only into examining the efficacy of transitional bilingual education programs, but also into one-way and two-way bilingual education programs. Given the increase in English Language Learners, not only in Texas but also across the United States, it is imperative that the efficacy of bilingual education programs be addressed.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.