Navigating the Impact of Renewable Energy, Trade Openness, Income, and Globalization on Load Capacity Factor: The Case of Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) Countries

. Considering relatively high but recently decreasing environmental quality in the LAC countries with regard to the world, this study uncovers the progress of environmental quality, which is proxied by load capacity factor (LCF). In this context, the study considers renewable energy, trade openness, income, and globalization as explanatory indicators; uses data from 1990 to 2018; applies pooled mean group autoregressive distributed lag (PMG-ARDL) approach as the main model; and performs panel Toda-Yamamoto (PTY) causality test as robustness model. This is important because the LAC countries have ecological reserves, whereas many countries have an ecological de ﬁ cit. For this reason, the investigation of the LAC countries has signi ﬁ cance for the environmental quality in the world. Also, this study has novelty in terms of examining LAC countries and using the LCF as the environmental quality. The results present that (i) renewable energy has an improving impact on the LCF in both the short run and the long run; (ii) trade openness has a stimulating impact on the LCF in the long run; (iii) however, globalization and economic growth have a degrading impact on the LCF in the long run. Hence, it can be drawn from the results that renewable energy and trade openness have a critical impact on preserving and developing environmental quality. In line with the empirical ﬁ ndings, it can be proposed that LAC countries should utilize renewable energy e ﬀ ectively, improve trade volume through trade openness, increase renewable energy technology import, and expand the use of renewable energy in foreign trade activities. Thus, e ﬀ ective renewable energy and foreign trade policies can promote the achievement of sustainable development goals (SDGs) in the LAC countries.


Introduction
Energy consumption has continued to increase in recent years, and fossil fuels have a still high amount of consumption to produce energy. Also, an increase in various factors, such as globalization, economic growth, and population, has contributed to the development of negative environmental issues [1]. In the last decades, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, which are the highest greenhouse gas, have increased significantly, and a big share of CO 2 emissions has resulted from energy consumption and economic activities. Thus, environmental awareness and sensitivity have increased depending on the adverse impacts of negative environmental issues (e.g., global warming and climate change) on humankind.
As a reflection of the interest of communities in the environment, the limitation of greenhouse gas emissions has been one of the most important priorities [2]. SDGs, Conference of Parties (COP) meetings, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement are some of the well-known initiatives that search for international solutions to environmental problems by proposing different approaches, such as transforming economies in an ecofriendly manner, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and limiting global temperature rise.
Environmental issues have been frequently addressed in recent studies. The first studies used CO 2 emissions as the indicator of the environment. Later studies considered ecological footprint (EF) as the indicator of the environment. Both CO 2 emissions and EF consider nature's output (demand) side and neglect the input (supply) side. However, the LCF is a more comprehensive measure of environmental quality [3] because it considers both the input and output sides [4]. The LCF is closely linked to SDGs, which emphasize the need to ensure a sustainable ecosystem in air, land, and sea. Thus, analysis of environmental issues using the LCF indicator can be a good guide for policymakers.
From the LCF perspective, the world has an ecological reserve until 1970, but there has been an ecological deficit since 1971. In this context, many of the developed countries have made a negative impact on the environment, whereas some countries, such as LAC countries, have had a high biocapacity compared to the EF. Figures 1(a) and 1(b) present the progress trend of biocapacity and EF for both the world and LAC countries. As it indicates, the world has an ecological deficit, whereas the LAC countries still have an ecological reserve although it has been declining. Considering the progress of the environment in both the world and the LAC countries, it can be seen that the environment in the LAC countries has a crucial importance for these countries as well as the world because they mainly have ecological reserves, which are significant for the world's environmental quality progress as the world's biocapacity store. From this perspective, consideration of the LAC countries for further empirical examination is so significant.
On the other hand, various factors, such as renewable energy consumption (REN), trade openness (TO), economic growth (EG), and globalization (KOF), have been considered for their impact on the environment from the explanatory variable perspective. Especially, usage of globalization as a sociocultural variable has been increasing, while other wellknown factors have been still taken into account by researchers. Moreover, there are some studies (e.g., [5,6]) in the literature, which have handled the LAC countries. However, current studies have used mainly CO 2 emissions as the environmental degradation indicator, which causes not consider the supply side. Hence, to date, no empirical study has analyzed the LCF of the LAC countries. Thus, there is a literate gap, and new studies, such as this study, which use the LCF, can fill in the gap.
While considering all the above information, the general picture is that the world has an ecological deficit, LAC countries have an ecological reserve while it has been decreasing, the literature about the LCF indicator has been developing, and some explanatory variables (e.g., globalization and trade openness) have begun to be considered in empirical examina-tion in recent studies. Hence, it can be questioned that (i) how can LAC countries achieve to have ecological reserves, whereas the world has an ecological deficit? In other words, are globalization, income, renewable energy consumption, and trade openness effective on the environment in the LAC countries?; (ii) what type of impact do these indicators have on the environment?; (iii) do the impacts of the effective variables on the environment at causality or not?; (iv) can the LAC countries be a lighthouse for the rest of the world in protecting the environment? Thus, can the generalized empirical results be obtained for other countries? Considering these questions, this study examines the LAC countries by using the LCF as an environmental quality indicator; considering REN, TO, EG, and KOF as explanatory indicators; applying the PMG-ARDL approach as the main model; and performing the PTY causality test as robustness model. The results mainly show the contributing impacts of renewable energy consumption and trade openness on the environment, whereas globalization and economic growth have a harmful impact.
This study has various contributions. Firstly, this study examines the LAC countries, which have high ecological reserves. Secondly, the study uses the LCF as the most comprehensive indicator of the environment. Third, the study applies PMG-ARDL and PTY causality approaches for the period 1990-2018 to make impact and causality analyses of REN, TO, EG, and KOF on the LCF. Moreover, based on the results, by following a comprehensive approach, this study proposes various policies and presents helpful insights to policymakers of LAC countries as well as other countries to achieve sustainable economic growth, environmental quality, and SDGs by focusing on overall environmental quality (proxied by the LCF) rather than only air quality (proxied by CO 2 emissions).
The following sections of the study are as follows: Section 2 presents the theoretical framework and reviews relevant literature; Section 3 explains methods including data, model, and, methodology; Section 4 gives the results of the empirical analysis, discussion, and implications; and Section 5 presents the conclusion.

Theoretical Framework and Literature Review
The Environmental Kuznets curve by [7] and the energy-led growth hypothesis by [8] are the main theories, which construct the theoretical underpinning of the study. These studies focus on mainly the relationship of environmental quality with economic growth and energy consumption, respectively. Also, developing literature in recent decades has considered the role of globalization [9] and trade openness [10] for environmental quality progress. Hence, following the literature, a lot of studies have investigated the relationship of environmental quality with energy, trade openness, economy (i.e., income), and globalization. In the literature, the first group of studies examines the impact of globalization on environmental quality. Some studies have defined that globalization makes a worse impact on the environment. For instance, [11] investigate India and Russia from 1995 to 2014 using the FMOLS approach and 2 International Journal of Energy Research conclude that globalization increases CO 2 emissions. Similarly, [12] uncover low-income countries from 1996 to 2015 performing also FMOLS approach and determine the increasing impact of globalization on pollution. Ref. [13] examines 12 countries from 1995 to 2015 and defines the increasing impact of globalization on the environment. Ref. [14] study Malaysia from 1971 to 2016 and conclude that globalization has a declining impact on ecological quality. Similarly, [15] focus on 74 emerging countries from 1990 to 2016 and determine the disruptive role of globalization on the environment. In addition, the unfavorable impact of globalization on environmental quality has been defined by [16] for China and Brazil from 1971 to 2016, by [17] for selected five South Asian countries from 1985 to 2018, by [18] for Ghana from 1984 to 2016, by [19] for OECD countries from 1996 to 2019, and by [20] for selected 67 countries from 1971 to 2018.
Opposing the studies above, some other studies have determined that globalization has a better impact on the environment. For example, [21] investigate Turkey from 1970 to 2010 and determine that globalization decreases CO 2 emissions. Ref. (22) examine South Africa from 1971 to 2014 and conclude that globalization supports ecological quality. Similarly, [23][24][25] have determined an evolving effect of globalization on the environment for China between 1980 and 2016, for OECD countries from 1971 to 2016, and for Bangladesh from 1972 to 2016, respectively. Thus, there is no certain result about the impact of globalization on the environment. According to some studies, globalization has a degrading impact on the environment, whereas globalization can have a supporting impact on the environment based on other studies. The possible reasons for this difference can be the level of globalization, the time passing since the beginning of globalization, importing green technologies,  1961 1964 1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 16 1961 1964 1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997   International Journal of Energy Research expanding their fossil fuel-intensive production because of globalization, and the economic structure of countries. Hence, some countries can benefit from globalization, whereas others cannot. Overall, globalization can have either an increasing or a decreasing impact on environmental quality. By considering that LAC countries are mainly lower-income ones, it can be foreseen that there is a negative relationship between globalization and LCF, which means that globalization has a reducing impact on environmental quality.
The second group of studies examines the impact of economic growth on the environment. For example, [11] investigate China and South Africa from 1995 to 2014 and determine that EG degrades ecological quality. Ref. [26] uncover Malaysia from 1971 to 2014 and conclude an adverse effect of EG on the EF. Ref. [27] report the increasing effect of EG on pollution for the United States of America (USA) for the period 1980-2015. Ref. [28] study South Africa from 1971 to 2014 and define a similar result. Besides, [13] investigates 12 countries from 1995 to 2015 and reveals the negative effect of EG on ecological quality. Also, such a result has been defined for five South Asian countries between 1985 and 2018 by [17], for G-20 countries from 1993 to 2017 by [29], for selected 22 countries from 1986 until 2017 by [30], and for China from 1979 to 2019 by [31].
Differentiating from the above-explained studies, some other studies have concluded that EG has an increasing impact on environmental quality. For instance, [32] argue that higher EG decreases CO 2 emissions in China between 1969 and 2015. Ref. [33] find that EG reduces the EF in 16 EU countries from 1997 to 2014. Ref. [34] conclude that EG helps to reduce CO 2 emissions in five Northeast Asian countries from 1995 to 2014. Ref. [35] report that EG mitigates the EF in Nigeria from 1977 to 2016. Also, [36] examine the USA using for the period 1965-2018 performing the Fourier ARDL approach and determine that EG decreases environmental quality.
In summary, the impact of the EG on the environment varies based on countries. While EG supports the environment in some countries, it can be also seen that EG degrades the environment in some countries. The possible reasons for this difference can be the usage of extensive fossil fuel energy, high energy consumption, low renewable energy consumption, production expansion with scale effect, and the economic structure of countries. Hence, the EG can be beneficial for some countries, whereas it is not for others. Thus, the EG can have either an increasing or a decreasing impact on environmental quality. By recognizing that LAC countries are generally lower-income ones, it can be preexpected that there is a negative relationship between the EG and LCF, which implies that the EG has a degrading impact on the environmental quality.
The third group of studies examines the impact of energy consumption on the environment. Previous studies examined mostly fossil fuel energy consumption, whereas more recent studies have focused on the role of cleaner energy, for example, [12] explore low-income countries from 1996 to 2015 and conclude that REN improves environmental quality. Ref. [16] investigates BRIC countries from 1971 to 2016 and defines that REN has an ecofriendly role. A similar result is obtained for LAC countries by [6,37], selected five South Asian countries from 1985 to 2018 by [17], for the USA from 1989 to 2021 by [38], for selected 67 countries from 1971 to 2018 by [20], for the USA between 1973 and 2022 by [39], and for USA from 1965 to 2018 by [40].
On the other hand, there are also contrary views, which state that REN is not either beneficial for the environment or effectively used. For instance, [41] defines that REN is not effectively used in Turkey. Similarly, [42] concludes that REN has a decreasing impact on the environmental quality in China. Also, [43] determine that ASEAN countries cannot benefit from REN in protecting environmental quality.
Considering the studies above, it is not possible to claim that REN has a certain supporting role in environmental quality. The possible reason for this condition can be that some countries (especially emerging ones) have inadequate and inefficient REN. Also, the REN-environment relationship is important for LAC countries because they are mainly emerging countries, and environmental degradation in this region encourages investments in renewable energy [44]. In summary, REN can be helpful to protect the environment in some countries, whereas it is not the case in some other countries. Thus, REN can have either an increasing or a decreasing impact on the environmental quality, and it can be preexpected that there is a positive relationship between REN and LCF, which implies that REN has an improving impact on the environmental quality.
The fourth group of studies examines the impact of trade openness on the environment. For example, [45] study Ghana, Kenya, and South Africa from 1975 to 2013 and conclude that trade openness increases environmental quality. A similar result has been observed for South Korea from 1971 to 2017 by [46], Finland from 1990 to 2019 by [47], and Pakistan from 1980 to 2017 by [48]. On the other hand, [14] examine Malaysia from 1971 to 2016 and determine the negative effect of trade openness on environmental quality. Similarly, [49] find a negative impact of trade openness on the environment for China from 1989 to 2019. Moreover, [50] determine that trade openness has a declining impact on the environmental quality in Turkey for the period 1965-2018 using the QQR approach.
Considering the above-handled studies, it can be summarized that trade openness is not always good for countries in terms of the environment. In other words, trade openness is good for some countries, whereas it is not for others. The possible reasons for this condition can be the level of trade openness, the time passing since the beginning of liberalization in the trade regime (i.e., regulations), the entrance of environmentally friendly raw materials and technologies, and the structure of import and export in countries. Overall, trade openness can have either an increasing or a decreasing impact on environmental quality. Considering that LAC countries have been increasing their trade openness, it can be preexpected that there is a positive relationship between trade openness and LCF, which means that trade openness has a stimulating impact on environmental quality. Table 1 Summarizes the literature that considers globalization, EG, REN, and trade openness.
In general summary, there are various studies in the literature, which examine environmental quality. Most of the previous studies have used EF and CO 2 emissions as an indicator of environmental degradation. However, the most recent studies [40,43,[50][51][52][53] have begun to use the LCF as the indicator of environment by considering that the LCF also includes biocapacity. According to [3,16], the LCF is an indicator that helps to analyze the environmental situation and sustainable development of countries more accurately. The present studies in the literature have examined different countries by using various econometric techniques. Although there are some studies for LAC countries, however, there has not been any study, which analyzes the environmental conditions of LAC countries by using the LCF indicator. Also, the present studies for LAC countries have not considered REN, TO, EG, and KOF at the same time. Thus, it can be stated that there is a literature gap in examining the LAC countries by using the most comprehensive environmental quality indicator and important explanatory variables, and this study fills in this gap through uncovering LAC countries through using the LCF indicator.

3.1.
Data. This study focuses on 11 LAC countries, which include Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay. In the context of the empirical examination, the LCF, which has recently become popular, is used as the environmental quality indicator. The LCF is calculated using the formula "biocapacity divided by the EF" [54]. Looking at the development of environmental quality indicators, the LCF provides the best results compared to both CO 2 emissions and EF. The LCF reflects soil, water, and air pollution and nature's ability to compensate for these problems simultaneously. Thus, the LCF is a good measure for environmental assessment. LCF shows how much of the damage caused by humanity to nature can be compensated by biocapacity. Also, globalization, EG, REN, and TO are considered explanatory variables.
The data for LCF and globalization are obtained from Global Footprint Network [55,56], respectively. Data for the other variables are collected from World Bank [57]. Annual data from 1990 to 2018 are used for the empirical study. The data end in 2018 because data for the LCF are not available after that date. Details of the variables are summarized in Table 2. All series are used in logarithmic form to obtain robust and consistent results.

Model.
To analyze the environmental quality in LAC countries, this study uses the model in Equation (1): To calculate coefficients of elasticities, Equation (2) is estimated with logarithmic series: where ln is the logarithm; α 0 denotes the constant term; β 1 , β 2 , β 3 , and β 4 are the long-term coefficients, i symbolizes cross-sections, t shows the time period, and ε it is the error term. In Equation (2), β 1 is expected to take a negative value. With globalization, KOF increases pollution in countries, which expand their fossil fuel-intensive production because of globalization. In the case of production expansion with scale effect triggering environmental degradation, β 2 becomes negative. Since renewable energy sources are environmentally friendly and carbon-free, β 3 is expected to be positive. If the increase in trade volume ensures the entry of environmentally friendly raw materials and technologies into the country, β 4 is positive.

Methodology.
The study follows a five-step econometric estimation strategy, which is visually depicted in Figure 2.
(i) In the first step, the preliminary statistics of the variables, which are descriptive statistics, correlation matrix, and variance inflation factor (VIF) values, are examined. If the VIF values are below 5 and the correlation coefficients are low, it can be assumed that there is no multicollinearity problem (ii) In the second phase, the study examines the presence of SH and CSD in the panel data. Following [58], Δand Δ adj -tests are used to determine the homogeneity of slope coefficients. The presence of CSD implies that a political, economic, or social shock in one country may spill over to other countries, and in this case, traditional panel data methods that do not account for CSD may lead to biased results. Therefore, the presence of CSD is tested using the Breusch-Pagan LM [59], the biascorrected scaled LM [60], and Pesaran's CD [61] (iii) In the third stage, the stochastic properties of the series are analyzed with the second-generation cross-sectional augmented Dickey-Fuller (CADF) panel unit root test of [62]. In the panel ARDL-MG approach, it is a requirement that the variables are not I(2), and therefore, unit root analysis is a prerequisite (iv) In the fourth step, the long-and short-run coefficients are estimated using the panel ARDL-PMG approach of [63]. The ARDL-PMG method allows the analysis of the short-and long-term impacts of series with different orders of integration on the dependent variable, which must be I(1). In addition, ARDL models applied to cointegration tend to be more efficient in capturing long-term relationship data in small samples. This approach also accounts for cross-sectional heterogeneity using short-term 5 International Journal of Energy Research  Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics, correlation matrix, and VIF results. The variable with the highest maximum value among the series is EG, and the variable with the lowest maximum value is LCF. The minimum value of LCF is negative, while the minimum values of the other variables are positive.
When examining the results of correlation analysis, there is a positive relationship between LCF and KOF and LCF and REN, while the correlation of LCF with EG and TO is negative. Moreover, the correlation coefficients and VIF values are low, and the tolerance values are above 0.20. Therefore, there is no multicollinearity problem in panel data.

SH and CSD Check.
As a major matter in panel data analysis, delta and adjusted delta tests are used to examine SH and CSD, and the results are presented in Table 4.
According to Table 4, delta and adjusted delta test statistics confirm that the slope coefficients are not homogeneous. As a next stage, the study checks CSD by using LM, biascorrected scaled LM, and CD tests, and the results are presented in Table 5. Table 5 demonstrates that there is a CSD in all series. In other words, a shock occurring in the variables of any of the LAC countries can affect other countries. In this respect, it is decided to use second-generation panel data methods without ignoring the CSD test results.

Panel Unit Root Test Results.
To choose the most appropriate unit root test, SH and CSD tests should be applied first. By considering heterogeneity and CSD test results, it is decided to use second-generation unit root tests. In this context, the stationarities of the variables are examined by using CIPS and CADF tests, and the results are presented in Table 6.
According to the CIPS test results, it is seen that the series are stationary at different levels. Therefore, it is appropriate to use an ARDL-based method, such as PMG-ARDL as the estimator.

Panel Estimation
Results. The PMG-ARDL method is performed to estimate the short-and long-run impact of the explanatory variables on LCF, and the results are presented in Table 7.

International Journal of Energy Research
Based on the PMG-ARDL approach, in the short term, only REN has a statistically significant impact on the LCF. In the long term, the impact of all independent variables is found to be statistically significant. The results reveal that the relationship between the KOF and the LCF is negative and significant. It has been determined that a 1% increase in KOF decreases the LCF by 0.427%. Similarly, a negative relationship is found between EG and the LCF. A 1% increase in EG decreases the LCF by 0.265%. On the other hand, a 1% increase in REN increases the LCF by 0.186%.
Besides, a 1% increase in TO increases the LCF by 0.186% as well. Hence, the empirical results show that KOF and EG have a decreasing impact on environmental quality, whereas REN and TO have an increasing impact. Furthermore, the ECT coefficient is negative and significant, which shows that it takes approximately 3 years to correct deviations from long-run equilibrium.

Robustness.
As the final step of empirical examination, the PTY causality test is used for robustness [65], and the results are summarized in Table 8.
The results of the PTY causality test show unidirectional causality from EG, TO, and REN to the LCF. These findings confirm the results of the PMG-ARDL approach. Moreover, there is a bidirectional causality relationship between KOF and the LCF. Overall, the outcomes of the PTY causality test are consistent with the results of the panel estimates. KOF, EG, REN, and TO are macroeconomic indicators, which affect environmental quality, and these indicators need to be considered by policymakers in LAC countries when formulating environmental policies. 4.6. Discussion and Implications. Benefitting from the literature review, this research analyzes the impacts of selected variables (i.e., globalization, income, renewable energy consumption, and trade openness) on environmental quality (represented by the LCF) in LAC countries, which have ecological reserves. In this context, the study analyzes yearly data for the period 1990-2018 through using the PMG-ARDL approach as the main model and applying the PTY   (iii) do the impacts of the effective variables on the environment at causality level or not?; (iv) can LAC countries be a lighthouse for the rest of the world in protecting the environment? Thus, can the generalized empirical results be obtained for other countries? Through applying the estimation methodology as presented in Figure 2, this study determines that renewable energy has an improving impact on the LCF in both the short run and long run. It is in line with the studies of [16,17,20,38,40] for BRIC countries, South Asian countries, selected 67 countries, and the USA. Also, this determination is consistent for LAC countries (i.e., [6,37,44,67]) as well. On the other hand, this determination is opposite to the studies of [41][42][43] for Turkey, China, and ASEAN countries. According to [68], intensive consumption of fossil fuels in LAC countries causes the spread of toxic gases and an increase in environmental pollution. For this reason, it is not easy to abandon energy for economic growth concerns. In this context, substituting fossil fuels with appropriate and available renewable energy sources, such as low-cost geothermal energy, can be a good alternative for LAC countries. LAC countries should improve their environmental quality by replacing their dependence on fossil fuels with renewable resources without causing production losses and increasing energy efficiency. Also, LAC countries have 28% of energy consumption by using renewable sources and are on track to become global leaders in renewable energy aiming to cover 70% of their electrical energy by 2030. Because LAC countries are mainly emerging countries, degradation in environmental quality encourages investments in renewable energy [44]. Hence, renewable energy is an important tool in the development of environmental quality for LAC countries. Also, lessons learned from LAC countries can be valuable and instructive for emerging countries, which are in the early stages of adapting new renewable energy sources.
Also, trade openness has a stimulating impact on the LCF in the long run. This finding is in line with the studies of [45][46][47][48] for three African countries (Ghana, Kenya, and South Africa), South Korea, Finland, and Pakistan. However, this finding contradicts the studies of [14,49,50] for Malaysia, China, and Turkey. This finding indicates that foreign trade is beneficial for the environmental quality of LAC countries. That is why because the level of trade openness of LAC countries has been increasing day by day, there is a long time beginning of foreign trade regime liberalization, environmentally friendly raw materials and technologies have been coming to these countries, and the structure of import and export is in a better structure in terms of environmental quality. Notes: * * * and * * refer to significance at 1% and 5% levels, respectively. Furthermore, the findings imply that the trade openness of LAC countries allows access to high-tech economies that consider environmental quality. Specifically, the main foreign trade partner of these countries is the USA [69]. Thus, by accelerating foreign trade with such a high-tech economy, LAC countries have the opportunity to benefit from contributing impact of trade openness in protecting environmental quality.
Besides, economic growth has a degrading impact on the LCF in the long run. This result is consistent with the studies of [17] for South Asian countries, [26] for Malaysia, [28] for South Africa, [30] for selected 22 countries, and [31] for China. On the other hand, the finding is inconsistent with the studies of [32,34,35] for China, 5 Northeast Asian countries, and Nigeria. Hence, it is possible to conclude that the economic growth structure and models of LAC countries do not support environmental quality. This may be due to the fact that they still consume a high amount of energy and use a high amount of fossil fuel-based energy in the total energy mix, although the share of renewable energy has been increasing, and production has expanded with scale effect. Thus, it is important that LAC countries should complete the industrialization process and ensure their development. Policymakers of LAC countries should strike a balance between the economy and the environment.
Moreover, globalization has a degrading impact on the LCF in the long run. This result is also consistent with the studies of [12,13,15,18,20,23] for low-income countries, CEE countries, 74 developing countries, China, Ghana, and 67 countries, respectively. But, the result is inconsistent with the studies of [22,24,25] for South Africa, OECD, and Bangladesh, in order. The main causes of this condition can be that level of globalization is not enough for LAC countries to support environmental quality; there is not much time passing since the beginning of globalization; there is fossil fuel-intensive production because of globalization and the economic structure of countries. Ref. [70] finds that minimizing pollution in LAC countries by 2050 under the net zero target is more difficult than that in other parts of the world. Negative pollution externalities due to inadequate regulation, overconsumption, and socioenvironmental conflicts in LAC countries should be reversed [71]. Therefore, it is significant to examine the environmental quality in LAC countries by considering the role of globalization and foreign trade (i.e., trade openness).
Overall, the results gathered imply that renewable energy and trade openness have a critical impact on preserving and developing environmental quality. The results support existing policies for renewable energy consumption and trade openness but refute the current policies for globalization and income. Thus, the empirical results answer research questions. In other words, the study shows that (i) globalization, income, renewable energy consumption, and trade openness are effective on the environment in LAC countries; (ii) globalization and income have a degrading impact on the environment, whereas renewable energy consumption and trade openness support the development of environmental quality; (iii) impacts of these indicators on the environment are at causality level; (vi) LAC countries are good examples for other countries in protecting the environment. Thus, it can be possible to state that empirical results can be generalized.
In the first step, LAC policymakers should consider the effective variables altogether. That is why because some of them (i.e., renewable energy and trade openness) have a supporting impact on the environment, whereas some others (i.e., globalization and income) have a degrading impact.
By considering the power of the impact of the variables, policymakers should focus on decreasing the negative impacts of globalization and income by not ignoring the positive impacts of renewable energy and trade openness. In this context, it is important to support the increase in renewable energy consumption. For this reason, the installation of much higher renewable energy capacity should be supported by incentives by LAC countries. Also, they should continue to benefit from trade openness as expanding and diversifying countries, which take place in foreign trade portfolios. In this way, LAC countries can benefit from supporting the impact of renewable energy and trade openness on the environment, while trying to convert the structure of their economies in an ecofriendly manner. Thus, income will be an automatic corrective mechanism by exceeding a certain limit. Unfortunately, this is not the case for LAC countries for now.
Moreover, LAC policymakers should consider simultaneously the economy, environment, energy, and trade altogether so that they can benefit from positive impacts and prevent negative impacts of these factors on the environmental quality while they can transform economies in an ecofriendly approach and support green energy.

Conclusion
This study uncovers the impacts of renewable energy, trade openness, income, and globalization on environmental quality in LAC countries for the period 1990-2018 using PMG-ARDL and PTY causality approaches. The results show that renewable energy and trade openness have a developing impact on the environment, whereas globalization and income have a deteriorating impact. Econometric approaches applied reveal that the results are robust and mainly consistent with preexpectations and the current literature whereas contradicting some studies. Taking into account the empirical results obtained, this study provides some policy implications. LAC countries should try to increase renewable energy use. That is why because the results show that renewable energy is beneficial, income is harmful to the environmental quality in LAC countries. These reveal that increasing renewable energy is good, but the current economic growth structure and model consume highly fossil fuel sources. Also, LAC countries should try to achieve their target as renewable energy leading countries. Hence, they can benefit from both high renewable energy use and low fossil fuel consumption, which enable the transition of economic structure. In this context, LAC countries can apply tax exemptions on renewable energy investments so that a transition from fossil fuel sources to clean energy can be achieved. Also, renewable energyenhancing subsidies and low-cost loans can be provided. By promoting and benefitting renewable energy, LAC countries can contribute directly to the success of SDG-7 and indirectly to SDGs 15, 16, and 17. Moreover, LAC policymakers can organize public education programs on renewable energy and support the use and adaptation of clean energy in production processes.
LAC countries can expand foreign trade in clean energy technologies to promote environmental quality. In this context, policymakers can support foreign trade activities with high-tech economies. As known, the USA is the main foreign trade partner in the LAC area. By considering this fact, LAC countries can develop foreign trade strategies and make regional trade agreements with the USA as well as other high-tech economies, such as European Union and Nordic countries. Hence, LAC countries can stimulate the import of green technologies.
Furthermore, LAC countries must find a solution to massive mass production caused by economic growth and globalization. Although LAC countries compare favorably with the world in terms of progress of environmental quality proxied by the LCF, biocapacity in 1961 was seven times that of EF but only two times that of 2018, which indicates that environmental quality and LCF are declining in LAC countries. In other words, LAC countries had seven times the capacity to cope with people's environmental pressure 50 years ago; however, the average capacity has decreased to two times in 2018. Considering that such a rapid decline in environmental quality could run environmental deficits in the future, it is necessary to take measures to minimize environmental pressure on the environment, which income and globalization cause. It will be good for LAC countries to adopt a greener economic growth strategy and reap the benefits rather than the damages caused by globalization.
Finally, LAC policymakers should consider environmental quality in formulating economic, energy, environmental quality, and trade policies. Thanks to the increase in foreign trade as well as increasing the production and consumption of clean and environment friendly products, they can contribute to environmental development in LAC countries.
Overall, it can be summarized that LAC countries should utilize much more renewable energy effectively, improve trade volume through increasing trade openness, increase renewable energy technology import, expand the use of renewable energy in foreign trade activities, and try to provide an econometric transition as well. Thus, effective renewable energy and foreign trade policies can promote the achievement of SDGs in LAC countries.
The study has some contributions as (i) examining LAC countries, which have high ecological reserves currently; (ii) considering the LCF as the most comprehensive environmental quality indicator; (iii) using renewable energy, trade openness, income, and globalization simultaneously as explanatory variables for examination of environmental quality; and (iv) applying PMG-ARDL and PTY causality approaches for the period 1990-2018, which is the most recent available data, to make impact and causality analyses. Therefore, this study has various contributions by focusing on the LAC countries through using the LCF for the first time.
On the other hand, although the study tries to provide a comprehensive investigation of the environmental quality progress and have various contributions to current knowledge, however, it has some constraints. This study examines 11 LAC countries, so future studies can examine other countries as well as many more countries. Forthcoming studies can also consider indicators, which are included in this study. Because this study applies panel data analysis techniques, new studies can make country-based analyses and apply new econometric models as well. In this context, the application of various approaches, such as bootstrap-based models, wavelet local multiple correlations, and rolling windows causality, can be evaluated by researchers. Furthermore, new studies can take into account the changing impacts of variables according to times, frequencies, quantiles, countries, and thresholds, which are not inside of this study's content.

Data Availability
The datasets analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Ethical Approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.