Exploring the Phytochemical Compositions, Antioxidant Activity, and Nutritional Potentials of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms

Mushrooms are a valuable source of food and medicine that have been used for centuries in various cultures. They contain a variety of phytochemicals, such as terpenoids and polysaccharides, that exhibit diverse biological activities, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and antidiabetic effects. However, mushroom's phytochemical composition and bioactivity vary depending on their species, cultivation conditions, processing methods, and extraction techniques. Therefore, using reliable analytical methods and standardized protocols is important for systematically evaluating the quality and quantity of mushroom phytochemicals and their therapeutic potential. This review provides a bibliometric analysis of the recent literature on biological activities, highlights trends in the field, and highlights the countries and journals with the highest contribution. It also discusses the nutritional value of the total content of phenolic and other phytochemicals in some species of mushrooms.


Introduction
A mushroom is an epigeous, feshy, fruiting body of macrofungus that typically grows in the soil or on a substrate such as organic matter [1].Traditionally, mushrooms were used as a food source or remedy for their known healing properties.In ancient history, mushrooms were appreciated; for example, in ancient Egypt, only Pharaohs were the only people allowed to eat mushrooms, or "food of God," as they call it [2].Recently, there has been increasing interest in studying and exploring the biological activities of mushrooms [3].Te number of mushroom species was estimated to be around 1.5 million [4].However, it is believed that the actual number is around 2.2 to 3.8 million worldwide [5].Out of this number, only about 14000 species have been identifed, 1400 of which are macrofungi [6], 1069 are considered edible [7], and 700 species were found to have therapeutic properties [8].Tese therapeutic properties are attributed to the biologically active compounds in mushrooms [9], which could be used as a replacement for modern treatment methods, which have multiple side efects such as pain, high toxicity, emotional stress, and negative impact on physical and mental health [10].Te presence of secondary metabolites makes these macrofungi used in the pharmaceutical industry [11].Tese secondary metabolites are known as "phytochemicals," including terpenoids, polyphenols, steroids, alkaloids, polyketides, dietary fbres, and polysaccharides (especially beta-glucans) and are concentrated in the fruiting body of mushrooms [12].Figure 1 shows some of the phytochemicals present in mushrooms.Phytochemicals possess a wide range of biological activities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiviral, immunomodulatory, anticancer, hypocholesterolemic, anti-infammatory, antiproliferative, anticoagulant, hepatoprotective, and hypoglycemic activities [13,14].Figure 2 shows some biological activities of edible and medicinal mushrooms.
Te study of mushrooms and their bioactive compounds holds immense signifcance for several reasons.One of these reasons is the biodiversity and unexplored potentials within the vast number of mushroom species [5] worldwide, only a few have been identifed [6].Tis vast, largely unexplored biodiversity represents a treasure trove of potential new compounds that could have signifcant therapeutic properties [28].As we mentioned before, only 700 species of mushrooms are known to have therapeutic properties [8].Tese mushrooms contain bioactive compounds that can potentially be used in the treatment of various diseases, ofering a natural alternative to synthetic drugs [29,30].
Tis review aims to highlight the role of the biologically active constituents (especially total phenolic content).Te nutritional and medicinal properties include the nutritional content of proteins, carbohydrates, and vitamins in the most popular mushroom species.Furthermore, the review seeks to elucidate the advantages of certain edible and medicinal mushrooms, along with their relevant biological activities, including antioxidant and antimicrobial properties.In the current review, the methodology for the literature review was conducted to avoid misinformation and cover the literature gap.Additionally, the review's analysis of the phytochemical literature's bibliometrics helps to make a road map that directs readers to the best resources for learning more about this efort.

Literature Review Methodology
Data were collected by searching scientifc publications (reviews and/or research papers) in various databases, including Scopus and Google Scholar, using keywords such as "phytochemicals" OR "secondary metabolites" AND "mushroom" AND "biological activities" OR "antioxidant."A total of 297 articles were the results of this search, and the record number was then screened for duplicate papers.Ten, the records were screened for relevant (within the aims and scope of the review) or irrelevant contents, and eligible (research article, within the range 2012-2023, written in the English language) or ineligible contents.Figure 3 illustrates this process [31,32].Te total number of articles fnally chosen and used to review the phytochemicals and the biological activity of edible and medicinal mushrooms was 76.

Bibliometric Analysis
Based on the Scopus database, the current study utilized bibliometric analysis to evaluate the global research trends on edible and medicinal mushrooms, their phytochemicals, and their medical application as antioxidants and antimicrobials.Te publications (297) from the Scopus database were exported as a CSV fle.
Te bibliographic data analysis based on journals, countries, and keywords was done using the VOSviewer program, Leiden University, the Netherlands (version 1.6.19,for Microsoft Windows system) [33].VOSviewer is a software tool developed for constructing and visualizing bibliometric networks.Tese networks can include elements such as journals, researchers, or individual publications, and they can be constructed based on citation, bibliographic coupling, cocitation, or co-authorship relations [33].Tis program was used to import all the collected data from 283 documents, comprising 51 journals and 22 countries, for analysis.Te software chose 51 journals (published 283 documents) for the productivity study.
Te most productive journals on mushroom phytochemicals and their biological activities were the following: Phytochemistry, Food Chemistry, Journal of Natural Products, Fitoterapia, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, Journal of Natural Products, Molecules, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, and Plos One (Figure 4(a)).Te colour of the circles on the bibliographic map was utilized to help defne the section for journals, where related keywords and journal contents were clustered together.Each circle's size represents the journal's strength in its total citations (TCs), total publications (TPs), and total link strength (TLS).
Te countries that contributed the most were 22 in the subject of phytochemicals of edible and medicinal mushrooms and their biological activities.India, China, the United States, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, Egypt, Malaysia, Italy, Turkey, and South Korea were the toppers (Figure 4(b)).Tis could be attributed to the biodiversity in these countries; most of them are considered the natural habitat of numerous mushroom species [6].In many of these countries, particularly in Asia (such as China, India, South Korea, Malaysia, and Taiwan), mushrooms have been used for centuries in traditional medicine [34].Tis traditional knowledge provides a valuable starting point for scientifc research [35].Other reasons could be that countries like the United States and Italy have advanced research infrastructures and invest heavily in research and development [35].
After analyzing the author's keywords' co-occurrence, the most mentioned mushrooms were Pleurotus ostreatus, Agaricus bisporus, Ganoderma lucidum, and Inonotus

Record selected for relevant content n=274
Non-relevant content n=192

Not eligible n=6
Studies in current review n=76

Nutritional Properties
Edible and medicinal mushrooms are known for their nutritional properties and health benefts [36][37][38].Tey are rich in proteins, carbohydrates, crude fbre, total phenolic compounds, fats, vitamins, and minerals [6,39].Te edible mushroom contains protein, amino acids, lipids, carbohydrates, mineral composition, and vitamins [15].Because of their special favour, feshy texture, and nutrient-dense diet, mushrooms could be used as a replacement for meat.It is a good source of protein, dietary fbre, vitamins (B1, B2, C, niacin, folic acid, and ergosterol), and minerals (K, P, Na, Fe, and Ca), and it is low in fat [40].Te nutritional value of the mushroom species is determined by its chemical composition and concentration [15].Figure 5 shows some applications of medicinal and edible mushrooms.

Te Most Nutritious Mushroom Species.
Te Pleurotus species is one of the most nutritious mushroom species, containing low-fat, low-sodium, and cholesterol-free, watersoluble vitamins, proteins, minerals, chitin, and glucans [41].Pleurotus sp. is considered to have 28.6 − 15.4% of proteins, 84.1 − 61.3% of carbohydrates, and 3-33.3% of dietary fbre [38].Teir protein content is higher than that of vegetables but less than that of mt and milk [38].Tis species is a rich source of proteins and minerals (Na, Ca, P, Fe, and K) and vitamins (vitamin C and B complex) [38] Te Pleurotus mushrooms harbour various active components including polysaccharides, dietary fbres, oligosaccharides, triterpenoids, peptides, proteins, alcohols and phenols, and mineral elements such as zinc, copper, iodine, selenium, and iron.Moreover, they also contain vitamins and amino acids [42,43].

Mushrooms
Have High-Water Content.Te high-water content of mushrooms makes them a low-energy diet, about 50-70 kcal/100 g [51].Mushrooms are composed of approximately 90% water [51].Tis high-water content contributes to their refreshing and hydrating quality [52].Incorporating mushrooms into meals can help maintain overall hydration levels in the body [52].Te dietary considerations mean a low-calorie diet, hydration, and nutrient density [51].Due to their low-calorie nature, mushrooms are an excellent choice for those aiming to manage their weight [51].Proper hydration is essential for various bodily functions, including digestion, circulation, and temperature regulation [53].Mushrooms ofer essential nutrients such as vitamins (vitamins B and D), minerals (potassium, copper, iron), and antioxidants [40].

Nutritional Future Prospective of Mushrooms.
Mushrooms can be used as a meat substitute in vegetarian and vegan dishes due to their texture and favour [54].Tey have a unique favour known as umami, also found in meat, making them a satisfying substitute [55].Oyster mushrooms can replace chicken [55], and they are more environmentally friendly than meat, as they require less land, water, and resources to grow [56].Mushrooms are regarded as functional foods and nutraceuticals [57].Tey support health and wellness and have potential as prophylactic or therapeutic agents [57].Ongoing research explores the biotechnological and medicinal aspects of edible mushrooms cultivated worldwide [58].Tese studies aim to uncover additional health benefts and applications [58].

Total Phenolic Content.
Te gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS-MS) chromatograms were employed for the investigation of the phytochemical composition within the Psilocybe natalensis (magic mushroom) [77].N-Hexadecoid was observed in all extractions (hot water, cold water, and ethanol) [77].Te ethanol extraction exhibited the greatest quantity of nanodecane and tetradecane, which possess antioxidation properties and anti-infammation [77].Advanced techniques with multiple exactions solvents give more reliable results [77].A study assessed the TPC, glucose, and total protein composition of three different varieties of mushrooms, namely, A. bisporus, P. columbinus, and L. sajor-caju [78]. A. bisporus exhibited the highest TPC and total protein composition [78].On the other hand, P. columbinus demonstrated the highest glucose content among the three species [78].Te TPC of fve distinct mushroom species was analyzed, and it was discovered that Astraeus hygrometricus, a naturally occurring International Journal of Microbiology edible mushroom, exhibited the most elevated TPC among all the species that were investigated (Serpula sp., Phallus sp., Tricholoma sp., and Lentinus sp.) [79].
Five diferent species of mushrooms were subjected to examination in order to ascertain their phenolic profle utilizing the HPLC technique [80].Te fndings demonstrated that Hydnum repandum exhibited the most noteworthy concentration of fumaric acid, rendering it the preeminent species among those evaluated [80].Fumaric acid plays a crucial role as an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, essential for producing energy from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in humans [81].Te phytochemicals found in H. erinaceus were analyzed using various extraction techniques (water, ethanol, acetonitrile, acetone, chloroform, and ethyl acetate) [82].Te fndings revealed that this particular fungus possesses a considerable abundance of the TPC, protein, and nitrogen alongside a moderate quantity of tannins and saponins [82].
Te total phenolic content of the Donko and Koshin varieties of L. edodes mushroom was assessed using two diferent extraction solvents [83].Te results indicated that, in the case of the Koshin var., the aqueous extract exhibited a greater concentration of the TPC than Donko's methanol and aqueous extracts [83].Te signifcance of these fndings lies in the potential therapeutic applications of these mushrooms, especially in the context of increasing antibiotic resistance [83].Similarly, the aqueous extract of B. edulis demonstrated the highest TPC [84].It was signifcantly greater than the methanol extract of the same mushroom and the aqueous and methanol extracts of Neoboletus luridiformis [84].Te chemical composition of two Pleurotus mushrooms was evaluated by applying distinct solvents to extract them [85].Te methanolic, ethanolic, and aqueous extracts of P. ostreatus and P. forida possess alkaloids, tannins, and saponins [85].Te highest TPC concentration was observed in the methanolic extract in both P. ostreatus and P. forida compared to the other solvents, and the concentration was comparable [86].On the other hand, steroids are exclusively identifed in P. ostreatus within all extracts [85].Meanwhile, anthraquinones and phlobatannins varied among the diferent extracts [85].P. ostreatus and P. forida can be considered potential contenders for natural origins of antioxidants possessing considerable worth in the domains of pharmaceuticals and phytotherapy [85].A research endeavour was undertaken to examine the characteristics of eleven types of mushrooms (A.bisporus, Auricularia auricula-judae, L. sajor-caju, L. squarrosulus, Panus lecomtei, P. giganteus, P. ostreatus, P. pulmonarius, Polyporus arcularius, L. velutinus, and Lycoperdon scabrum) gathered from the northeastern region of India [87].Te fndings revealed that L. sajor-caju possessed the most elevated total phenolic content, trailed by P. ostreatus and P. pulmonarius [87].

Te Total Phenolic Content of Mushroom sp. under Special
Conditions.An investigation was performed to ascertain the infuence of various drying methods on the bioactive constituents within the L. sajor-caju mushroom [88].Te results indicated that the employment of solar drying within a temperature range of 45-47 °C resulted in the greatest quantities of protein, beta-glucan, lipids, carbohydrates, and TPC (total phenolic content) [88].Tis will help any future investigation on this species to consider using solar drying the mushroom sample [88].Te evaluation of the phenolic compounds in the tropical black bolete mushroom is considered an interesting preservation technique [89].Te results revealed that fresh samples exhibited Potential Applications of medicinal and edible mushroom 1-Therapeutic properties (bioactive compounds like phenols and flavonoids) 2-Food consumption ready to eat or as a probiotic for food supplementations 3-Bio-or organic fertilizer (recycling of agro wastes or spent mushroom substrates).
8-Production of bio char (pollutant removing) and carbon dots (for biomedical application).
9-Food preservation and food packaging 10-Production of cellulytic enzymes (e.g., laccase, xylanase, mannanase, etc.) Figure 5: Potential applications of some edible and medicinal mushrooms and their by-products, which include using biologically active compounds in developing the nutraceutical and pharmaceutical formulations, in addition to applications such as bioremediation, animal feeds, energy production, fertilizers, bio-based materials, cosmetics, and cosmeceuticals.
10 International Journal of Microbiology the greatest quantity of the TPC, followed by frozen, dried, and brined samples, in that order [89].Tese results highlight the importance of considering preservation techniques when assessing mushrooms' nutritional value and health benefts [89].Using diferent supplements has an impact on the TPC [90].A study assessed the overall phenolic content of P. pulmonarius cultivated with diferent supplements [90].Te fndings revealed that the initial growth phase, when supplemented with gypsum, exhibited the greatest phenolic content [90].Te study suggests that the initial growth phase is the most important stage for phenolic production in P. pulmonarius [90].Heat treatment can enhance the nutritional and medicinal value of Reishi mushrooms by increasing their phenolic content [91].A study examined how heat treatment afected the phenolic content of dried fruiting bodies of Reishi medicinal mushrooms (G.lingzhi) [91].Te results showed that the samples subjected to heat treatment at 120 °C and 150 °C had the highest TPC, exceeding that of positive control (gallic acid) [91].Table 2 shows a list of phytochemicals, diferent sample treatments, and medical applications of mushrooms.; the fndings revealed that the TPC was elevated in all species mentioned above [92].Out of all the mushroom extracts examined, it was observed that S. imbricatus displayed the most substantial concentration of the TPC [92].S. imbricatus is believed to possess the capacity to serve as a prospective reservoir for novel and alternative antioxidant substances within the realms of the food industry [92] Armillaria mellea and M. procera were procured from the countries of Morocco (MA) and Portugal (PT) [93].After completing examinations, it was determined that the TPC was greater in M. procera obtained from Morocco [93].Conversely, ascorbic acid, β-carotene, and lycopene exhibited higher levels in A. mellea sourced from Portugal [93].Te empirical data obtained in this comparative analysis unequivocally illustrate that the geographical, microclimatic, and edaphic circumstances of the collection site can infuence the chemical composition, bioactive compounds, and antioxidant properties of the indigenous fungi [93].Tree indigenous edible fungi from the northeastern region of India underwent a comprehensive examination to determine their nutritional composition and ascertain the presence of phenolic compounds [94].As a result of this analysis, it was discovered that Ramaria thindii possessed the most substantial quantity of total polyphenols, surpassing both Macrocybe gigantea and Lactifuus leptomerus in this regard [94].Te experimental fndings demonstrate that each of the three wild consumable fungi is an outstanding reservoir of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamin C, and other vital minerals [94].

Comparison Studies.
In a comparison of two extraction methods, ethanol and aqueous extraction, the total phenolic content (TPC) of the inky cap mushroom (C.radiata) was analyzed [86].Te results indicated that the ethanol extract had a higher TPC than the aqueous extract [86].Te observed outcomes demonstrated that the polarity of the solvent had an impact on the TPC of the extracts derived from the C. radiata mushroom [86].A comparative analysis was conducted to determine the highest levels of the TPC in commercially and laboratory-prepared extracts of six distinct species of mushrooms [95].Te fndings revealed that Chaga, Maitake, Reishi, Shiitake, and Turkey Tail exhibited the highest TPC concentrations [95].Another comparative analysis examined the polyphenolic composition of extracts from B. edulis and Cantharellus cibarius mushrooms collected in Romania [96].Te fndings demonstrated that the highest TPC for B. edulis was observed in the shade-dried powder extract employing a methanol/water mixture as the extraction solvent [96].Terefore, acidic water (CH 3 COOH 10% ) is the recommended solvent for extracting these bioactive compounds from B. edulis and C. cibarius mushrooms [96].Conversely, in the case of C. cibarius, the fresh samples using pure methanol exhibited the highest TPC [96].Te beta-glucan content of fve Pleurotus mushrooms was investigated, and the results indicated that P. ostreatus 5175 Florida had the highest betaglucan content compared to the other samples tested [99].In the in vivo assays, the extract from P. ostreatus Florida 5175 displayed the highest activity level in the NF-κB inhibiting assay.Tis observed outcome can be attributed to the extract's notable content of total glucans [99].Te characteristics of L. swartzii, widely recognized as the Philippine sawgill mushroom, were assessed, encompassing an analysis of its phytochemical composition [100].Te fndings unveiled that the fruiting bodies of this mushroom housed a considerable quantity of phenolic compounds, albeit in a lesser proportion than the quantity detected in the mycelia [100].Te current study has demonstrated that the mycelia and fruiting bodies of L. swartzii have the potential to be a natural source of phytochemicals that contribute to antioxidant and antidiabetic properties [100].Tis fnding strongly suggests that the chemical characteristics and biological activities are infuenced not solely by the species, strain, culture media, and extraction solvent but also by the type of mushroom biomass used for extraction [100].An investigation focused on analyzing the phytochemicals of the aqueous extracts derived from L. edodes and P. ostreatus [97].It was discovered that L. edodes exhibited higher concentrations of the TPC than P. ostreatus [97].Nevertheless, L. edodes also demonstrated greater total carbohydrates and proteins [97].Te aqueous extracts derived from mushrooms exhibit encouraging antiviral properties in the face of adenovirus type 7 and herpes simplex virus type-II [97].Te current study promotes the utilization of these fungi for pharmacological intentions in consideration of their minimal cytotoxicity [97].Te surrounding environments can afect the physiochemical and phytochemical properties of the same species of the mushroom [98].Te phytochemical characteristics of G. lucidum grown in the wild and those cultivated were evaluated [98].Te study revealed that the cultivated G. lucidum exhibited elevated International Journal of Microbiology 12 International Journal Microbiology concentrations of the TPC and water-soluble polysaccharides [98].Conversely, the wild-grown G. lucidum displayed the most abundant terpenoid content [98].Table 3 shows a list of phytochemicals, diferent sample treatments, and medical applications of mushrooms.

Other Phytochemicals.
Te secondary metabolites of four wild edible mushrooms grown in a tropical region were examined [101].Qualitative tests indicated the presence of tannins in all of the species, while alkaloids and carotenoids were absent from all [101].Triterpenoids were found in A. auricula and Trametes versicolor, while steroids were present Schizophyllum commune and Microporus xanthopus but absent in the former two [101].Saponins were detected in all mushrooms except S. commune [101].
Qualitative analysis was conducted to determine the presence of phytoactive compounds in the Reishi mushroom (G.lucidum).Te ethanolic extract of this mushroom gives positive results for glycosides, terpenoids, phenols, and carbohydrates, while saponins and alkaloids were absent [102].Te HPLC-DAD-MS technique was used to analyze the extract of P. columbinus Quél.Tis analysis revealed the presence of gallic acid, catechin, hydroxytyrosol, chlorogenic acid, epicatechin, and benzoic acid in the mushroom extract [103].Tese compounds are believed to contribute signifcantly to the antioxidant activity of this mushroom [103].
Te qualitative presence of phytochemicals in P. eryngii mushrooms was investigated using various extraction methods [104].Crude and butanol extracts yielded positive results for alkaloids, carbohydrates, saponins, lipids, sterols, glycosides, and terpenoids [104].Nonetheless, some variations were observed in the results of other extracts [104].Notably, tannins were absent in all the tested extracts [104].
Te phytochemical composition of the chloroform extract from Geastrum saccatum was determined, and qualitative analysis revealed the presence of multiple active compounds, including phytosterols, saponins, phenolic compounds, tannins, proteins, glycosides, and terpenoids in comparison with the extracts obtained from methanol, ethyl acetate, acetone, petroleum ether, and hexane [105].Te polyphenol content of T. versicolor mushrooms was examined in methanol and water extracts, with the aqueous extract showing higher levels of total polyphenols (16.11 ± 0.14 mg GAE/g DW) compared to the methanol extract [106].Te fndings also revealed the existence of heteropolysaccharides and small quantities of mannose, xylose, galactose, fucose, and glucuronic acid [106].Te exopolysaccharide from the Calocybe sp.mushroom was extracted and characterized, with ethanol extraction yielding higher than methanol and hot water extraction [107].Te carbohydrate content in the sample was also estimated [107].Te presence of active compounds in L. edodes mushrooms was investigated through hot water extraction and further assessment, revealing the presence of three types of sugar (neutral, uronic, and sulfated sugar) and a fair amount of protein and phenolic compounds [108].Te crude polysaccharide present in this mushroom serves as a reservoir of natural substances that possess benefcial properties for human health with the potential to be utilized in both the food and pharmaceutical sectors [108].Te phytochemical content of the V. volvacea mushroom extract was examined using diferent extraction methods, including hot water shaking (HS), microwave assistance (MA), and ultrasonic assistance (UA), with UA extraction yielding the highest total polysaccharide content and hot water shaking extract showing the highest beta-glucan content [109] Te mycelial extracts of P. djamor and P. forida were examined to determine the presence of active components, and the phytochemical assessment of dichloromethane mycelial extracts revealed the presence of terpenoid compounds [110] and also a substantial quantity of the bioactive substances (such as anthraquinones, and terpenoids), all of which likely contributed to the observed biological efcacy [110].Te phytochemical properties of fve species of wild mushrooms naturally grown in the Garhwal Himalayan region, India, were analyzed, with terpenoids and steroids found in all mushroom extracts and saponins not detected in any of them [111].Te presence of other compounds varied among diferent species [111].Te analysis was conducted to determine the total phenolic content of B. edulis and N. luridiformis [84].It was observed that the aqueous extract of B. edulis displayed the highest TPC, surpassing both the methanol extract of the same mushroom and the aqueous and methanol extracts of N. luridiformis [84].Tis result was deemed statistically signifcant [84].Te presence of phytochemicals in two species of Ganoderma mushroom was investigated [112].Upon analyzing the methanolic extract, it was observed that the presence of carbohydrates, terpenes, and a small quantity of saponins was evident [112].However, no alkaloids or favonoids were detected [112].
Qualitative and quantitative methods were employed to assess the phytochemical content of the H. erinaceus mushroom, revealing a substantial quantity of phenolics and high levels of protein and nitrogen [82].Tese compounds showed good antimicrobial activity against some human pathogens [82].Te extract of the A. hygrometricus mushroom was tested for phytochemicals, and it was found to contain phenolic compounds that directly contribute to its antioxidant, anticancer activity, and inhibition of atherosclerosis [113].Te P. ostreatus cv.Florida extract was found to have an abundance of phytochemicals, particularly amino acids, carbohydrates, and glycosides [114].

Antioxidant Activity
Te radical scavenging activity of the magic mushroom P. natalensis was evaluated with the ABTS assay using diferent extracts [77].Despite exhibiting the highest antioxidant efcacy compared to the other extracts, the ethanol extract exhibited lower values than the positive control, consisting of trolox and ascorbic acid [77].Te fndings indicate that the concentrations employed for the water and ethanol extracts of P. natalensis are deemed safe and possess antioxidant and anti-infammatory properties [77].Te antioxidant properties of three edible mushrooms belonging to the Agaricomycetes, specifcally P. columbinus, L. sajorcaju, and A. bisporus, were subjected to investigation [78].
International Journal of Microbiology

P. forida
International Journal of Microbiology Te outcomes derived from the DPPH assay disclosed that P. columbinus exhibited the highest activity [78].Furthermore, the outcomes of the ABTS assay indicated that all three extracts surpassed Trolox, whereas the results obtained from the ORAC assay demonstrated that the A. bisporus extract displayed the lowest activity level [78].Te extracts derived from the three mushrooms possess considerable therapeutic potential for preventing and managing various illnesses [78].Te antioxidant potential of the wild edible and novel mushroom A. hygrometricus was evaluated [79].Te results obtained from the DPPH and ABTS assays indicated that the antioxidant efcacy of this mushroom was dosage-dependent [79].Moreover, the antioxidant potentials present in the methanolic extract demonstrated a greater activity in the DPPH assay than in the ABTS assay [79].It can be deduced that the methanolic extract of A. hygrometricus comprises a novel biomolecule that possesses appreciable antioxidant properties, which can potentially become a promising potent anticancer agent in the future [79].Te antioxidant activity of six mushrooms was examined, with Chaga, Maitake, Shiitake, Reishi, Lion's Mane, and Turkey Tail mushrooms being subjected to both commercially and laboratory-prepared extracts [95].Five antioxidant assays were conducted, namely, ORAC, NanoCerac, DPPH, TPC, and FRAP.Te results indicated a greater antioxidant activity for the laboratory-prepared extracts, particularly for Chaga and Maitake [95].Tis study provides a foundation for future investigations into the antioxidant components of mushroom extracts generated using this technique and the variables infuencing their durability and efectiveness [95].Te antioxidant efciency of various mushroom extracts made in various ways was also compared [96].B. edulis and C. cibarius were pulverized and extracted using acidic water, ethanol/water/-acetic acid, hexane, and diethyl ether [96].Te DPPH assay showed that the aqueous extract possessed a signifcant antioxidant capacity compared to other extracts [96].Te current investigation discloses that B. edulis and C. cibarius are the sources of polyphenolic compounds and display antioxidant properties, particularly when employing acidic water as a solvent [96].
Te ABTS assay examined the antioxidant capacity of the isolated peptides from the split gill mushroom (S. commune) [115].However, numerous studies have asserted that peptides with low molecular weight possess signifcant radical scavenging activity [116].Te results were rather unsatisfactory compared to the positive control, ascorbic acid [116].Te scavenging activity of the methanolic extract of P. forida was higher than other extracts when using the DPPH assay [117].Te bioactivity of the methanolic extract can be attributed to the presence of 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy cinnamic acid (PF5), which was obtained and purifed from this particular mushroom [117].Te reducing power of the P. forida extracts was comparable to that of standard ascorbic acid [117].PF5 holds great promise as a viable source of prospective antioxidant and anticancer compounds [117].Moreover, it could potentially be efective in the role of preventive agents in combatting the pathogenesis of certain diseases [117].Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that polysaccharides derived from deer tripe mushrooms (A.delicata) possess radical scavenging action [118].Te results from the DPPH and ABTS assays were relatively good but not comparable to vitamin C [118].Te study found that the crude polysaccharide has strong antioxidant properties, with a clear dose-efect relationship at lower concentrations [118].Te antioxidant activity of C. indica was assessed using various techniques such as radical scavenging and reduction ability [119].Te efcacy of radical scavenging was evaluated through the ABTS, DMPD, and superoxide radical scavenging tests [119].Te antioxidant activity of this mushroom extract against ABTS was found to be concentration-dependent [119].However, the results were consistent with previous studies [119].Te aforementioned discoveries indicated that crude polysaccharides derived from C. indica have the potential to be deemed as a natural agent that inhibits oxidative damage and aids in the prevention of cancer [119].Moreover, the bioactivity of T. versicolor exopolysaccharides was investigated, and the antioxidant activity was measured using the DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and CUPRAC assays [106].Te outcomes revealed that the water extract exhibited higher antioxidant activity than the methanol extract [106].Additionally, combining the macrofungal biomass and crude exocellular polysaccharide of T. versicolor presents natural dietary supplements with noteworthy health benefts [106].Te antioxidant activity of EPS isolated from the fruiting body of Calocybe species was evaluated using three diferent methods: FRAP, ABTS, and DPPH [107].All three experiments demonstrated that Cyclobe species possess a high antioxidant activity [107].Te ABTS and DPPH values were higher than those reported in previous studies on other Calocybe species [107].Te antioxidant activity assays demonstrated the inhibitory efects of the I. hispidus extract against the ABTS and DPPH tests [120].Te extract performed better than commonly tested antioxidant chemicals [120].According to this study, I. hispidus could be a promising source of bioactive compounds for health promotion and the development of functional foods [120].Te antioxidant activity of the P. ostreatus mushroom was assessed using both in vitro and in silico approaches [116].Te DPPH assays were used to evaluate the free radical scavenging activity [116].As the concentration of the mushroom extract increased, its antioxidant activity also increased, although it remained relatively lower than that of the ascorbic acid [116].P. ostreatus is rich in bioactive compounds, ofering antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer properties [116].Another dose-dependent outcome was the extraction of the Laetiporus sulphureus mushroom, which resulted in the extraction of the lovastatin compound [121].Te antioxidant activity of this compound showed a gradual increase with increasing concentration and was comparable to that of ascorbic acid [121].
In vitro assessment of the antioxidant activity of various H. erinaceus mushrooms was conducted using the DPPH International Journal of Microbiology free radical scavenging assay [82].Te aqueous extract exhibited the highest antioxidant activity, followed by the chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts [82].H. erinaceus has the potential to serve as a crucial component of daily human dietary intake to protect from oxidative stress or viral invasion [82].Te polysaccharides derived from the L. edodes mushroom were evaluated for their antiradical activity using the DPPH and ABTS tests [108].Te radical scavenging ability showed a substantial efect at higher doses, although it was lower than ascorbic acid [108].Furthermore, the EC 50 value of this mushroom extract was lower than that of previously studied mushroom extracts [108].L. edodes polysaccharides act as natural antioxidants, making them valuable for functional food and pharmaceutical applications [108].Te antioxidant capacities of three edible mushrooms, namely, M. gigantea, L. leptomerus, and R. thindii, were examined using the DPPH assay [94].M. gigantea and R. thindii showed better results than L. leptomerus [94].However, the antioxidant activity percentage of the three species was lower than that of ascorbic acid [94].R. thindii demonstrated the most elevated cumulative phenolic content, following its utmost radical scavenging characteristics [94].Te ability of the wild mushroom G. lucidum to scavenge free radicals has been documented [10].Te high antioxidant activity of this mushroom can be attributed to its higher concentrations of triterpenoids and polyphenols [10].Although the values did not align with those of the positive control, they were comparable to fndings from other studies [10].A study focused on investigating the antioxidant activity of the A. hygrometricus mushroom [113].Te excellent result can be attributed to its high phenolic content [113].Te mushroom also contains astragurkurol, which is rich in phenols [113].Overall, this research sheds light on the potential health benefts of this mushroom and its natural antioxidant activity [113].Te antioxidant potential of fve species of the Pleurotus mushroom was examined with the DPPH assay to assess their radical scavenging activity [99].Among the fve species (P.fabellatus, P. pulmonarius, P. opuntiae, P. ostreatus Sylvan Ivory, and P. ostreatus 5175 Florida), only P. fabellatus exhibited the highest antioxidant activity [99].Tis result could be attributed to the highest levels of ergosterol and mannitol in P. fabellatus [99].Te biological activity of the V. volvacea mushroom was examined using three diferent extraction techniques: hot water shaking (HS), microwave assistance (MA), and ultrasonic assistance (UA) [109].Te strongest antioxidant activity was found in the HS extract [109] V. volvacea polysaccharides extracted with hot water shaking (HS) yield the highest amount of beta-glucan, which explains the extract's high antioxidant power [109].Another advanced extraction technique was used when subcritical water extraction combined with a deep eutectic solvent to extract the polysaccharides from L. edodes, and their antioxidant activity was investigated [122].Tis extraction technique demonstrates that the extract had a high level of antioxidant activity because this method helps to extract polysaccharides from this mushroom with higher scavenging capacity for DPPH, hydroxyl radicals, and hydrogen peroxide [122].

Te Antioxidant Activity under Special Conditions.
Te antioxidant potential of the mushroom L. sajor-caju was investigated through various drying methods [88].In order to determine the reducing power and radical scavenging efcacy, the FRAP and DPPH assays were employed, respectively [88].Based on the fndings, it was determined that the drying method does not impact the antioxidant activity [88].Another investigation was done for the antioxidant activity of the polysaccharides obtained from antler mushrooms using three drying methods: hot air drying, vacuum drying, and freeze-drying [123].Tis investigation yielded three polysaccharides (AMP-H, AMP-V, and AMP-F) that exhibited antioxidant activity and radical scavenging potential with a concentration-dependent efect [123].In contrast to the previous study, the scavenging capacities of the DPPH radical were impacted by the diverse drying methods due to the alterations in the physicochemical properties of the polysaccharide samples [123].A comparison was made regarding the antioxidant capabilities of tropical black bolete mushrooms using various preservation methods [89].Te fndings from the DPPH and ABTS assays revealed that fresh, frozen, and dried sample extracts demonstrated higher activity compared to brined sample extracts [89].Conversely, the brined sample extract displayed greater reduction potency than the other extracts with the FRAP assay [89].Freezing is an efective preservation method that minimally alters the nutritional composition, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant properties even after one year in storage [89].A study investigated the antioxidant activity of P. pulmonarius grown on sawdust with diferent supplementations [90].Te utilization of the DPPH assay demonstrated that the mushroom's fruiting body recovered from each fush revealed that zeolite treatment exhibited the highest radical scavenging activity [90].Implementing zeolite augmented the production of mushrooms and the efectiveness of their biological processes [90].Additionally, it triggered an elevated degree of antioxidant value in terms of radical scavenging activity and phenolic content [90].A study focused on examining the impact of heat treatment on the dried fruiting bodies of G. lingzhi and its potential as an antioxidant [91].Te results indicated that the antioxidant capacity of the heat-treated samples was higher than that of the untreated samples, as determined by the DPPH and ABTS assays [91].Te study confrms that heat treatment enhances Reishi mushroom's beta-glucan solubility, antioxidant capacity, and lactogenic properties [91].

Te Antioxidant Activity of Mushroom sp.
Collected from Specifc Regions.In Turkey, fve species of mushrooms (Daedalea quercina, H. repandum, I. radiatus, Omphalotus olearius, and S. commune) were investigated for their antioxidant efcacy [80].In order to evaluate their antioxidant activity, fve assays were employed, including β-carotenelinoleic acid, DPPH, ABTS, CUPRAC, and metal chelating activity assays [80].Te methanol extract of I. radiatus and H. repandum exhibited the highest antioxidant efcacy in β-carotene-linoleic, DPPH, ABTS, and CUPRAC assays International Journal of Microbiology compared to the others [80].Te metal chelating assay revealed that the hexane extract of S. commune exhibited the highest antioxidant activity [80].Te antioxidant efcacy of two mushrooms, A. mellea and M. procera collected from Morocco (MA) and Portugal (PT), was studied.Te results of the DPPH assay exhibited that A. mellea from PT has the strongest efcacy [93].Statistically, the fndings of the antioxidant outcomes revealed a marginal dissimilarity between mushrooms derived from MA and PT [93].Wild mushrooms' chemical composition and antioxidant activity are varied based on geographic and climatic conditions [93].Furthermore, an assessment was conducted to evaluate the antioxidant potential of dry fruiting bodies of wild edible mushrooms consumed in northeast India [87].Te fndings indicated that L. sajor-caju and L. squarrosulus exhibited a high radical scavenging activity [87].Te nutritional value of wild edible fungi could help improve food security and nutrition for northeast India's indigenous populations, especially those following a vegetarian diet [87].Te antioxidant efcacy of wild mushrooms growing in tropical areas was also determined (A.auricula, M. xanthopus, T. versicolor, and S. commune) [101].Compared to the positive control (vitamin C), only S. commune demonstrated a moderate radical scavenging activity [101].Despite identifying secondary metabolites, the activities of A. auricula, M. xanthopus, and T. versicolor were weak [101].Another study explored the antioxidant activities of the Philippine sawgill mushroom L. swartzii [100].Te fndings from the DPPH assay revealed that the mycelial extract displayed a greater radical scavenging activity than fruiting bodies [100].However, compared to the positive control (gallic acid and catechin), both the mycelial and fruiting body extracts demonstrated only moderate antioxidant potential [100].

Dosage-Dependent Aspect
Numerous studies mentioned that the antioxidant activity of some mushrooms can be dosage-dependent.Antioxidants, such as phytochemicals, can act bidirectionally by increasing or decreasing oxidative stress [124].Tis means that the efect of these antioxidants on oxidative stress can vary depending on the dosage [124].For instance, some studies have shown that certain antioxidants exhibit high reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging activity at low concentrations [124].Implications of concentration-dependent antioxidant activity are signifcant in various felds, especially in health and medicine [125].For example, it has been observed that the antioxidant and prooxidant activity of several favonoid compounds in an ironinduced lipid peroxidation system with cultured hepatocytes can be concentration-dependent [125].Tis suggests that the concentration of antioxidants can infuence their efectiveness and role as either antioxidants or prooxidants [125].Moreover, antioxidants have been demonstrated in vitro to have relevant pharmacological properties through their interaction with enzymes, transcription factors, and other proteins [126].Tese interactions can be particularly relevant for preventing degenerative diseases of the central nervous system, cancer, and metabolic or immune diseases [126].

. Conclusion
Mushrooms are gaining more interest globally for their health and nutritional values.Tey are highly nutritious and versatile food that also ofers a variety of medicinal benefts.Tey are low in calories and fat but high in protein, fbre, vitamins, and minerals.Furthermore, they are rich in phytochemicals, including phenolics, beta-glucans, ergothioneine, and other compounds, which have been shown to have antioxidant, anti-infammatory, and immuneboosting properties.Te antioxidant activity of some mushroom species can be a powerful agent against infammations and cancers.Mushrooms are indeed unique and benefcial in nutritional value and medicinal properties.Tese unique characteristics make mushrooms a subject of increasing interest in various felds, from nutrition and medicine to environmental science and material engineering.Mushrooms possess a fascinating array of properties that set them apart and contribute to their health benefts.Tey are nutritional powerhouses that provide immune support and are rich in antioxidants, which help combat oxidative stress and promote overall well-being.Mushrooms support a healthy infammation response in the body, contain compounds that assist in balancing blood sugar levels, support brain function and neuron generation, and boost energy levels and stamina.
Additionally, these properties make mushrooms a promising food for preventing and managing various chronic diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.Te potential of mushrooms is vast and still largely untapped, making them a fascinating area of study and application.However, further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms behind these health benefts and to develop more targeted and efective mushroom-based therapies, such as exploring the molecular mechanisms of mushroom bioactivities, developing novel mushroom-based nanomaterials and drug delivery systems, and evaluating the clinical efcacy and safety of mushroom products.In general, incorporating mushrooms into a balanced and varied diet can provide signifcant nutritional and medicinal benefts.

Figure 1 :Figure 2 :
Figure 1: Some phytochemical compounds present in edible and medicinal mushrooms.

Table 2 :
Some phytochemicals, name of the mushroom, concentration, extraction solvent and/or drying method, and medical application.
a Gallic acid equivalent, b tannic acid equivalent.

Table 3 :
Some phytochemicals, name of the mushroom, qualitative results, extraction solvent and/or drying method, and medical application.