Population Status and Threats to Galliform Bird in the Arjo-Didessa River Valley, Southwestern Ethiopia

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Knowledge about the population status, habitat preference, and threat to birds is of paramount importance to species conservation. It also provides crucial baseline information to comprehensively monitor population trends and devise sustainable species conservation and ecosystem management interventions. Subsequently, public knowledge and attitudes are vital to understand the interests of communities and contemplating conservation needs in a way that strengthens conservation eforts and positively impacts decisions that signifcantly infuence the long-term success of conservation [23,24]. However, such ecological information is rudimentary in many species of birds, including Galliformes.
In Ethiopia, Galliformes are among the most recognized and predominantly hunted groups of birds, practically in rural areas. Tere are about 16 species and 25 subspecies of Galliform birds that exist in the country [25,26]. Among these, three francolin species, including the Black-fronted Francolin (Pternistis atrifrons), Harwood's Francolin (Pternistis harwoodi), and Moorland Francolin (Scleroptila psilolaema), are endemic to Ethiopia [8,25,27]. Nonetheless, Galliformes are among the less studied birdsin the country. Consequently, there is a need to study the population status, trends, and habitat preferences of the species throughout their range, including the Didessa River Valley. Hence, the present study was conducted to assess the species composition, relative abundance, population size, public knowledge, and threats to Galliform birds in the Arjo-Didessa River Valley, Western Ethiopia.

Study Area.
Te study was conducted in the Arjo-Didessa River Valley area. It is located in the Bedele Zuria and Jimma-Arjo districts along the Buno Bedeleand East Wellega administrative zones of the Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. It is located at a distance of 395 km from Addis Ababa at 36°39′60.0″E and 8°40′00.0″N (Figure 1). Te river basin is a part of the lowland plains of the Sudan-Guinea savanna biome, which covers parts of the western regions of the country. Its catchment is estimated to cover an area of 27,000 km 2 [28]. Te Jimma-Arjo district covers an area of 741.41 km 2 . Te total population of the district was 86,329, of which 42,093 were maleand 44,236 were female households [29]. Bedele Zuria district covers an estimated area of 745.0 km 2 . Its population size is 77,687, consisting of 38,654 male and 39,033 female households [29]. Te study site covers an estimated area of 1,486 km 2 with an altitude elevation ranging between 1280 and 2524 m a.s.l. Te area is characterized by a humid tropical climate with a mean annual rainfall ranging between 1200 and 2200 mm during which the peak rainy season spans from May to October. Te mean annual maximum and minimum temperature of the study area range from 36.5 to 16.8°C. Te specifc administrative kebeles included in the present study include fve from the Bedele Zuria District, i.e., Ambelta, Bekelcha Beftu, Chefe Jalela, Haro Tatesa, and Kolosere, and fve including Bedasa Dedesa, Sefera Tabia, Gudeya, Luguma Sefera Tabia, and Meta from the Jimma-Arjo District ( Figure 1).
Te LandUuse of the sub-basin comprises croplands (56%), forest (19.6%), shrubland (12.4%), savannah grassland (6%), settlement (5%), and riverine areas (0.2%) [30]. Its climate features consist of the upland (above 2500 m asl), midland (1500 m-2500 m asl), and lowland (below 1500 m asl) areas which account for about 0.1%, 81.5%, and 18.4% of the total area, respectively. Te habitat features of the Bedele Zuria District consist of agricultural farmlands (4,719.57 hectares), grazing land (9,848.45 hectares), forest (1,0682.7 hectares), and other (724 hectares) land uses categorized under Dega (16%), Woina-Dega (64%), and Kola (20%) climate conditions. Agriculture represents the main practice in the study area in which more than 88% of the surrounding communities depend on mixed (crop production and livestock rearing) farming systems. Maize, sorghum, cofee (Cofee Arabica), and tef are the main cash crops. Te area also supports potential biodiversity resources (fora and fauna) and is known to encompass varieties of wildlife species including mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. However, the ever-increasing anthropogenic pressure, settlement expansion, agricultural intensifcation, and continuous conversion of forests and grassland habitats to farmlands changed the scenario, and the annual rate of deforestation in the area has increased to 2.6% [31].

Data Collection.
A preliminary survey was conducted from November to December 2017 to assess the habitat features and identify key areas. Indirect evidence, such as feathers and calls, was used to confrm the presence of Galliformes in the area. Information about these birds' occurrence and historical distribution ranges was also solicited through structured interviews and informal communications. After their occurrence was confrmed, feld inventory and data collection were carried out from January 2018 to December 2020 during both the dry (October to April) and wet (June to August) seasons. Te study area was classifed into four habitat categories: farmland, forest, grassland, and riverine areas through stratifed random sampling techniques based on the vegetation features to collect Galliform data from these habitats. A total of 74 point count routes within a 50 to 250 m radius distance between count stations were located and used in the forest habitats. Te point count survey was carried out at a walking speed rate of 1.5 km/hr in bushy areas and 2.5 km/hr in open habitats. Te point count surveys were employed by moving across a predetermined counting route to standardize data collection following Bibby et al. [32] and Sutherland [33]. About 68 line transects ranging between 2 and 5 kilometers in length with a 500 × 125 m distance in between the transects were established and employed in the farmland, grassland, and riverine habitats following Bibby et al. [32] and Sutherland [33]. A 200 m distance between points was maintained to reduce the probability of double counting and avoid bias in population estimation [33]. Te sighting distances were set at 50 to 100 m in the dense woodland forest and riverine areas and extended up to 250 m in the open farmland and grassland habitats (Table 1).
Data collection was carried out twice a day during the morning from 06 : 00-10 : 00 a.m. and afternoon from 14 : 00-18 : 00 p.m., when most birds were prominently active [32]. A waiting period of three to fve minutes before counting was applied to minimize disturbance. Field surveys and data collection were carried out once per month for about 14 to 22 days. A group of four individuals were involved in the feldwork. A pair of binoculars (Vortex-Optics Diamondback 8 × 42) and a digital camera recorder (Canon Rebel T6) were used to aid in counting and further species identifcation. For each Galliform species encountered, the number of individuals, location, and habitat features were recorded. Te maximum number of individuals per survey considered the population size of the species in the counting routes to avoid bias in population estimation. Species identifcation and taxonomic classifcations were executed based on bird guidebooks including Redman et al. and Ash and Atkins (2009) [25,26]. Morphometric parameters, including plumage pattern, body size and shape, and calls, were used to aid in species identifcation. Direct inventories, questionnaire-based surveys, focus group discussion, structured key informant interviews, and informal communications were employed to assess public knowledge, the attitude of local communities, and possible threats to Galliformes. A total of 286 participants were selected from adjacent kebeles, i.e., the smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia, through purposive and systematic random sampling techniques [34] following the equation as follows: where n is the sample size, N is the population size, e is the precession level, i.e., ±8%, at a 95% confdence interval, and p < 0.05. In addition, about 134 participants were selected using a purposive sampling technique. Key informant interviewees were selected from the adjacent villages based on their proximity to the escarpment areas through purposive sampling methods targeting community elders, farmer households, and agriculture and forest management ofces based on management experience, hunting practices, and participation in farming activities. Te public attitude was Zonal Map of the Study Area International Journal of Zoology assessed to understand the opinions and ways local communities perceive these birds. Hence, a positive attitude was defned as the way local people perceive these birds related to their ecological, sociocultural, and aesthetic values and economic attributes, while negative attitude was stated as the concern of participants about the efects and costs posed by these birds associated with crop damage, loss and related disturbances as well as related factors that hinder the conservation of the species in the area. Participants who have prior knowledge about these birds were chiefy included to assess public attitudes as negative, positive, or who have neutral thoughts towards the conservation signifcance of these birds. Informal communications were also conducted to solicit information about Galliformes hunting and egg collection practices in the area.

Data Analyses.
Data analyses were computed through an MS Excel spreadsheet (version 19) and SPSS software (version 26). Descriptive statistics were used to present the population size and threats of Galliformes. Te relative abundance of Galliform species was determined by using encounter rates that give crude ordinal scales of abundance [32,35]. Te encounter rate for each species was calculated by dividing the number of Galliformes recorded by 100 feld hours as follows: Encounter rate � Total number of indi vidu al birds observed Period of observation in hours × 100.
Encounter rate values were used to categorize each species under fve abundance score categories, i.e., <0.1 for rare, 0.1-2.0 uncommon, 2.1-10.0 frequent, 10.1-40.0 common, and >40 for abundant [32,35]. One-way ANOVA was employed to infer the associations between Galliform population abundance across spatiotemporal gradients. A chi-square test was used to assess the associations between public knowledge, awareness, and attitude of respondents towards Galliformes across age, gender, levels of education, and occupational status. Data measurement values were presented as mean ± SE. Variables tested at p < 0.05 in a 95% confdence interval were retained as statistically signifcant.

Species Composition and Relative Abundance.
Galliform birds belonging to three species grouped under three distinct families were recorded. Clapperton's Francolin (Pternistis clappertoni (Phasianidae)), Helmeted Guineafowl (Numida meleagris (Numididae)), and Stone Partridge (Ptilopachus petrosus (Odontophoridae)) were the recorded species in the study area. Among these species, Helmeted Guineafowl was abundant and Clapperton's Francolins were common in terms of relative abundance. Te Stone Partridge was a frequent species in the area ( Table 2).

Population
Size. Te total number of Galliform individuals recorded in the study area was 413 ± 48 (mean ± SE) with a record of 461 individuals during the dry season and 365 individuals during the wet season. However, there was no statistically signifcant diference in the number of individuals recorded between dry and wet seasons (χ 2 = 64.80, df = 1, and p > 0.05). Among the three species, the species with the highest population size record was helmeted guineafowl, both during the dry and wet seasons, with 309 and 243 individuals, respectively. However, the stone partridge population record was the lowest during both the dry (16 individuals) and wet (nine individuals) seasons. Te wet and dry season population counts showed statistically signifcant diferences in Clapperton's Francolin (F = 9.68, df = 1, and p < 0.05) and Helmeted Guineafowl (F = 31.634, df = 1, and p < 0.05), but not in Stone Partridge (p > 0.05). In the present study, the fock size of Galliformes ranged from one to 22 individuals per fock during the dry season and one to 13 individuals during the wet season. Among the three species, Helmeted Guineafowl recorded the highest fock size during the dry season (22 individuals per fock) and Clapperton's Francolin (13 individuals per fock) during the wet season (Table 3).

Galliform Habitat
Use. Te three Galliform species were recorded in the four habitat types in the study area, and their population size varied across the spatiotemporal gradients, with the highest mean Galliform abundance recorded in the farmland (141.5 ± 7.5; mean ± SE) and the lowest in the riverine (61.5 ± 43.5; mean ± SE) habitats (Table 4). Tere were statistically signifcant diferences in Galliformes abundance between the diferent habitats (F � 90.06, df � 3, and p < 0.05). Te study also showed signifcant diferences International Journal of Zoology in habitat use where Galliformes were mainly recorded in the farmland habitat both during the dry (134 ± 18; mean ± SE) and wet (149 ± 57; mean ± SE) seasons, and it was statistically signifcant (p < 0.05). Among the three Galliform species found in the area, stone partridge were recorded only in the woodland forest habitat during both dry (16 ± 4; mean ± SE) and wet (9 ± 2; mean ± SE) seasons, while Clapperton's francolin and helmeted guineafowl were recorded in all four habitats with varying numbers.

Treats to Galliformes.
Te present study showed that habitat destruction and loss (32.18%), agricultural intensifcation (19.93%), overgrazing (14.34%), and deliberate fre and burning of farmlands and adjacent forest habitat patches (11.88%) were the primary threats afecting Galliformes and their habitats in the study area, while fuelwood collection (6.29%) and application of agrochemicals (4.20%) such as weed killers and insecticides constituted a less proportion of threats ( Figure 2).  Figure S1). Tey also perceived these birds as an important source of food, meat, and eggs (55.06%), income (28.48%), and other purposes (16.45%), such as foster rearing and traditional medical practices. Tere were statistically signifcant diferences in the knowledge and awareness of respondents towards Galliformes with respect to age (χ 2 � 10.45, df � 3, and p < 0.05) and levels of education (χ 2 � 13.08, df � 3, and p < 0.05), while gender and occupational status of respondents have no signifcant efect on the knowledge and awareness of the participants (p > 0.05). In the study area, about 72.06% of the respondents had a positive attitude towards Galliformes owing to their socioeconomic attributes, while 18.62% had a negative attitude, which was mainly attributed to causing crop damage and loss during the sowing and early growing seasons. Tere was a statistically signifcant diference in the attitude towards Galliformes across the age (χ 2 � 14.49, df � 3, and p < 0.05) and occupational status (χ 2 � 10.20, df � 3, and p < 0.05) of respondents,   International Journal of Zoology 5

Public Knowledge and
while gender and levels of education had no signifcant efects on public attitude (p > 0.05) ( Table 6). Hunting and egg collection activities were commonly practised in the study area and about 63.97% of the participants have experienced Galliformes hunting activities. Tey commonly used live traps and leg-hold snares set near the foraging areas, drinking spots, and roosting sites ( Figure S2). Moreover, those who perceived Galliformes as pests predominantly employed guarding (67.39%, n � 31), trapping and snaring (17.39 (n � 8), scarecrow (10.87, n � 5), and other measures (4.35, n � 2) as a main crop damage prevention mechanisms (Figure 3).

Discussion
Te Arjo-Didessa River Valley is an important potential area for the three Galliform bird species. Tese species have a signifcant population that is distributed across diverse habitat types to fulfl their ecological requirements. Te study also showed a signifcant diference in Galliformes population assemblage across spatiotemporal gradients that can be attributed to the variations in habitat features and anthropogenic pressure. In the study area, deliberate burning of forest and adjacent farmland areas were commonly practiced and possibly resulted in habitat destruction   International Journal of Zoology and changes in landscapes, which in turn infuenced the distribution ranges of the species. Environmental features including microclimate, habitat size, quality, and vegetation structure often infuence the accessibility of resources supporting the ecological requirements of birds, including food sources, proper cover, roosting sites, competition, and predation pressure, which in turn determine the abundance, species composition, resource use, and distribution patterns of birds [36,37]. Te helmeted guineafowls and Clapperton's francolins were widely distributed in diferent habitat types. However, the stone partridges were entirely restricted to the woodland forest patches. Te consistent occurrence and preference of this species in woodland forest areas may be attributed to the accessibility of the necessary resources, such as foraging niches, breeding sites, roosting areas, and protective cover, in the forest area compared to other habitats. Previous reports have also shown stone partridge's preference for woodland forests and rocky hillside areas with bushes and Hyparrhenia grass at an elevation of 620-1400 m asl [5]. However, a strong association of the species with open forests and farmland habitats was reported [38]. Studies also describe that forest-restricted birds are less tolerant of habitat modifcation and hence have smaller distribution ranges [39].
In the present study, anthropogenic disturbance pressure related to agricultural intensifcation, settlement expansion, and investment activities resulted in habitat destruction and loss that afected vegetation structure and ecological niches and hence potentially infuenced the composition, status, and distribution of Galliformes. Anthropogenic intrusions, including hunting activities and agricultural intensifcation, the availability of food resources, and the structure and composition of habitat vegetation cover, impact ecological traits and hence infuence the abundance, composition, distribution, and habitat use of birds [40][41][42][43]. Deforestation, clearance of thorn scrub for cultivation, fuelwood collection, mining, hunting, and egg collection for food and a source of income were reported as the main threats to the survival of Harwood's francolin (P. harwoodi) and Erckel's francolin (P. erckelii) in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia [44,45]. Overhunting and habitat degradation due to agricultural conversion are also reported as the major threats causing the population decline of Clapperton's francolin [8]. In agreement with the fndings of the present study, habitat destruction, loss of foraging and nesting areas, overgrazing, deforestation, human disturbance, settlement expansion, frewood collection, hunting, and predation activities were reported as the main threats afecting helmeted guineafowls and their habitats in Ethiopia [46]. Te consistent practices of burning farmlands and adjacent habitat patches in the study area were supposed to confscate leftover straws, weed dumps, and pests. However, these activities afect essential resources such as foraging niches and resting sites, which in  International Journal of Zoology turn alter the habitat utilization and distributions of species since fres have potential efects on biological, ecological, and environmental features [47]. In the study area, the application of agrochemicals, illegal hunting, and egg collection activities was also observed as major threats to Galliformes. Land-use practices and the use of agrochemicals such as pesticides and the removal of adequate grass cover for nesting, arthropods, and weeds afect the essential food sources of the species and their chickens during the breeding season, contributing to the decline of the helmeted guineafowl population, their egg-laying, chick survival, and reproductive success in South Africa [48].
Te majority of residents in the study area have prior knowledge, awareness, and a positive attitude about guineafowl and francolins. Tey perceived them as important due to their economic and sociocultural attributes such as sources of food, income, enjoyment, foster rearing, and medicine, which are in line with the fndings reported in Ghana [49]. However, such illegal hunting and egg collection activities commonly practiced in the study area can potentially afect Galliform populations. Tis is aggravated by snaring and trapping practices used to catch these birds, which can make them susceptible to predation risk during capture. Farmers who perceived Galliformes as pests predominantly employed guarding, scarecrows, snaring, and trapping measures to protect against possible crop damage and disturbance by these birds in the area, which was in agreement with other fndings [50].

Conclusion
Te study area supported a potential population of three species of Galliform birds including the Clapperton's Francolin (P. clappertoni), Helmeted Guineafowl (N. meleagris), and Stone Partridge (P. petrosus). Te Helmeted Guineafowl and Clapperton's Francolins were widely distributed across diverse sets of habitats. However, the Stone Partridge was entirely restricted to woodland forest areas. Guarding, trapping, and scarecrows are the predominantly employed crop raid protection measures to protect against crop damage by these birds. Tere is a factual public understanding and a positive attitude towards guineafowls and francolins which have essential implications for the conservation of the species. However, Galliformes and their habitats in the area are under immense anthropogenic pressure owing to a wide array of interrelated threats including habitat destruction and loss, agricultural intensifcation, fre, fuelwood collection, and agrochemicals. Illegal hunting and egg collection activities are also commonly practised which potentially afect the population of Galliformes and hence urge immediate conservation intervention to sustainably maintain the species and protect their habitats in the region.

Data Availability
Te feld datasets and fgures used to support the fndings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Conflicts of Interest
Te authors declare that there are no conficts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.