Internet of Things (IoT) of Smart Homes: Privacy and Security

. Te Internet of Tings (IoT) constitutes a sophisticated network that interconnects devices, optimizing functionality across various domains of human activity. Recent literature projections anticipate a signifcant increase, with estimates exceeding 50 billion connected devices by 2025. Despite its transformative potential, the IoT landscape confronts formidable privacy and security challenges, encompassing intricate issues such as data acquisition, anonymization, retention, sharing practices, and behavioural profling. Efectively addressing these challenges mandates the development of scalable solutions, innovative management strategies, and adaptable policy frameworks. In this paper, we conduct an exhaustive examination of major IoT applications, alongside associated privacy and security concerns. We systematically categorize prevalent privacy, security, and interoperability issues within the context of the IoT layered architecture. Te review highlights current research initiatives focused on developing energy-efcient devices, optimizing microprocessors, and fostering interdisciplinary collaborations to address the challenges in the IoT landscape. To efcaciously manage risks in this dynamic landscape, stakeholders must implement comprehensive strategies that span stringent data protection legislation, extensive user education initiatives, and the deployment of robust authorization and authentication frameworks. Tis paper aims to empower industry leaders, policymakers, and researchers by providing actionable solutions, not just insights, to navigate the complexities of the IoT landscape efectively. Future research initiatives should prioritize the fortifcation of security measures for large-scale IoTdeployments, the formulation of user-centric privacy solutions, and the standardization of interoperability protocols. By establishing a robust foundational framework, our paper endeavours to spearhead the discourse on IoTapplications, privacy paradigms, and security frameworks, paving the way towards a resilient and interconnected future.


Introduction
Te Internet of Tings (IoT) is a revolutionary idea that refers to a vast network of interconnected physical devices, vehicles, appliances, and various objects that are embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies that allow them to collect and exchange data via the Internet or other communication networks.Tese devices can be everyday objects like smartphones, wearable ftness trackers, home appliances, industrial machines, and even vehicles [1].Te key components of IoT are the embedded sensors and actuators that allow these devices to sense and interact with their environment.Tese sensors gather data from the surroundings, such as temperature, humidity, motion, and so on.Te collected data is then processed by the device's software, which can make real-time decisions or send the data to a centralized server or cloud for further analysis and storage.
Te main goal of IoT is to create a seamless and intelligent network where physical objects can communicate with each other and with humans, leading to more efcient and automated processes, improved decision-making, and an enhanced user experience [2].By leveraging IoT, businesses and industries can optimise their operations, enhance productivity, and develop new innovative services and products [3].However, with the increasing adoption of IoT, concerns regarding data privacy, security, and standardization have also emerged [4,5].As billions of devices get connected [6], it becomes crucial to ensure robust privacy and security measures are in place to protect sensitive information and prevent potential cyberattacks.Te IoT has the potential to revolutionize various aspects of our lives, bringing forth a new era of interconnectedness and technological advancements.As technology continues to evolve, IoT is expected to play a central role in shaping the future of industry, infrastructure, and everyday living.We outline the following contributions in our paper: (i) Tis paper provides a comprehensive review covering IoT applications, security issues, privacy concerns, and solutions across various domains.(ii) We highlight the primary applications of IoT and associated privacy and security concerns within the IoT domain, along with proposed countermeasures found in existing literature.(iii) We propose a threat taxonomy for IoT applications, privacy, and security.(iv) Finally, we discuss open research directions relevant to the areas highlighted in this survey.
Te rest of the paper is structured as follows.In Section 2, we introduce the multifaceted applications of IoT.In Section 3, highlights IoT security challenges, Section 4, highlights IoT privacy concerns, Section 5, profers IoT security solutions and IoT interoperability.Finally, Section 6 summarises the research fndings and concludes with a discussion on future trends.

IoT Applications
In recent years, a few surveys have been conducted to highlight research advancements across various domains.In the following subsections, we categorize existing survey works based on IoT-related objectives.In the following subsections, we categorize the existing survey works on the basis of IoT-related objectives.Te way we connect to the world around us is being completely transformed by the Internet of Tings (IoT).IoT applications are transforming businesses, improving our lives by connecting everyday objects to the Internet, and enabling them to interact [7].
Te IoT is fostering innovation across every sector, from smart homes that provide convenience and energy efciency to industrial settings that optimise operations through predictive maintenance [8].Te application of IoT for remote patient monitoring helps the medical feld, and precision farming increases crop yields in agriculture [9].Public safety is improved as trafc management becomes more efective in smart cities [10].Te potential of the Internet of Tings is limitless as it develops, holding up the promise of a day when connection and data-driven insights will redefne what is possible in our increasingly networked world [11].Based on the literature synthesis, Figure 1 and Table 1 provide a detailed summary of the multifaceted applications of IoT.

Smart Healthcare.
Smart healthcare is a game-changing method that uses cutting-edge technologies to improve the quality, efciency, and accessibility of healthcare services [18].It includes a wide range of applications aimed at improving patient care, streamlining healthcare processes, and empowering individuals to take control of their health [19].Smart healthcare is changing the face of healthcare by improving patient experiences, lowering costs, and eventually leading to improved health outcomes for individuals and communities [20,21].It provides the potential for a future healthcare system that is more efcient and efective.Table 2 outlines recent research areas and major visions in IoT applications for smart healthcare.

Smart Transportation.
Smart transportation uses innovative technologies and data-driven solutions to improve transportation systems' efciency, safety, and sustainability [28].It comprises a wide range of applications aimed at improving mobility, reducing congestion, and reducing environmental impact.Smart mobility is transforming how people and products move, providing answers to urban congestion, environmental concerns, and inefciencies in transit.It has the potential to make future transit systems more sustainable, accessible, and safe [29].Table 3 provides a summary of the applications of IoT in the domain of smart transportation and logistics.

Smart Agriculture.
Smart agriculture, also known as precision agriculture, uses modern technology and datadriven solutions to optimise farming, practises, boost agricultural output, and encourage sustainable resource management [36].Smart agriculture is revolutionising traditional agricultural practises by leveraging the power of technology and data analytics.It has the potential to enhance   IoT application, a survey Te main objective includes the overview of current research trends, key technologies, and applications of IoT, along with the potential for complete automation in the future [13] IoT for industrial application: Survey Te main objective include the opportunities IoT provides for industrial systems, the development of modern IoTapplications, and a proposed system for monitoring and decision-making in industrial applications using IoT [14] A survey of IoT applications in blockchain systems Te main objective includes an overview of key components of IoT blockchain and popular applications, a comparison of consensus protocols for IoT blockchains, and an analysis of trafc models for P2P and blockchain systems [15] Internet of things applications: A systematic review  Author Smart healthcare IoT [22] Proposed the concept of smart healthcare, which uses new information technologies to make healthcare more efcient, convenient, and personalized.It also discusses the existing problems with smart healthcare and the prospects of smart healthcare [23] Te proposed system is superior in performance and is highly efective in delivering healthcare services during workouts.Tis research presents an intelligent healthcare framework based on IoT technology to provide ubiquitous healthcare to a person during his/her workout sessions [24] Tey suggested a deep learning model that outperforms state-of-the-art algorithms in terms of accuracy.A cognitive healthcare framework is developed that employs IoT-cloud technology and deep learning for intelligent decision-making [25] Tey suggested a smart Saskatchewan healthcare system based on IoT technology in four areas: Business analytics and cloud services, cancer care services, emergency services, and operational services [26] A four-layered architecture for monitoring and predicting infection in urine allows people to check their health daily and anticipate urinary infection so that preventive actions may be implemented early on.A four-layered architecture for monitoring and forecasting UI in urine was proposed [27] Adoption and use of IoT/WSN technologies to supplement existing treatment choices in order to give healthcare solutions are advocated.To demonstrate and promote the functioning IoT-based solution for cancer care services, we provided a number of frameworks and architectures Proposed a smart transportation system that reduces the risk of accidents.IoT technology enables a smart transportation system that reduces the risk of accidents, improves safety, increases capacity, reduces fuel consumption, and enhances overall comfort and performance for drivers [31] Proposed in smart-sensor prototype that can create an O/D matrix for several BRT routes.Its smart sensor prototype can detect bluetooth signals from devices used by people travelling by BRT systems [32] Te internet of things and blockchain technology are becoming a reality in smart transportation.A layered framework, BCTLF, has been proposed to integrate IoT and blockchain for smart logistics and transportation [33] A smart information system has been developed in which travellers receive notice of their present position, the upcoming location of the bus, and the crowd level within the bus.Te suggested system emphasises how intelligent transportation system (ITS) may decrease obstacles to public transportation use and have a favourable infuence on bus travel [34] Te suggested architecture's simulation output is projected to provide a strategic guide for strategic security management of urban smart transportation.A smart transport security system can be proposed using a geospatial modelling technique.An experimental research was carried out in Beijing, China, to simulate the suggested design, which may serve as a strategic guide for urban smart transport strategic security management [35] Te internet of things may be created by combining bus scheduling, bus presence detection, and passenger payment efciency via a booking seat system.Te usage of IoT has mostly focused on safety in order to avert road accidents 4 Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering 2.5.Smart Homes.Smart homes use technology to improve their occupants' comfort, security, energy efciency, and general level of living [50].Tese developments strive to make daily chores easier and to provide consumers more control over many aspects of their living surroundings.
Residents of smart homes enjoy greater control, energy savings, security, and convenience.Table 6 outlines IoT applications in the context of smart homes.Author Smart agriculture IoT [37] In the suggested concept, IoT sensor were employed.Crop management, resource management, cost efciency, quality and quantity, crop monitoring, and feld monitoring may all be improved by IoT [38] Smart agriculture is an automated and guided information technology used with the internet of things.Tey presented a remote monitoring system that enables quick access to agricultural facilities such as notifcations via short messaging service (SMS) and guidance on weather patterns, crops, and so on [39] Sensors that can provide information about their agricultural areas are a new concept.Environmental conditions in agricultural areas may be monitored with IoT sensors.Temperature and humidity may be measured with a single CC3200 chip.Te camera may be linked to the CC3200 in order to shoot photographs and send them through MMS to farmers' mobile phones over Wi-Fi [40] Farmers may use IoT-based systems to remotely monitor and regulate their crops, as well as gather and analyse data in real time.IoT-based solutions can also assist to cut farming costs, enhance crop yields, and improve agricultural product quality [41] Te proposed technique minimises the network latency to a certain level.A scalable network architecture is proposed for monitoring and regulating agriculture and farms in rural regions.Reduced network latency to a certain extent.Cross-layer channel access and routing solutions for sensing and actuation [42] Smart agriculture takes advantage of IoT by storing data from numerous sensors in the cloud.IoT has emerged as a key 21st-century technology for agricultural management.Data for smart agriculture is being collected and stored using sensors and cloud computing.Smart agriculture has the ability to increase agricultural product quality and quantity Te study highlights the work done by the NATO IST-147 "military applications of internet of things" group, which investigates the possibility of using smart city IoT capabilities in military operations [45] Tey demonstrated how widely available IoT components could be integrated to create a secure and low-cost sensor system that could be utilised for a variety of military applications such as smart military base operations or logistic chain monitoring.Tey attempt to provide end-to-end security between a sensor gateway installed and a user [46] Tis research describes the history of IoT, as well as the technologies, framework and standardization process of IoT, as well as typical military applications of IoT, such as the battlefeld troops presentation system, the battlefeld resource guarantees integration system, and the simulation and verifcation system of tactics and operation schemes [47] Warfghters' lives are valuable, so we must do all possible to safeguard them.Military ammunition control is also a signifcant and necessary component of military operations.Te research discusses and analyses several IoTapplications and approaches for military missions.Te research also explores the protocols and implementation approaches used and presented by people all around the world [48] Te study outlines the work done by the NATO IST-147 "military applications of the internet of things" group to investigate the possibility of using civilian internet of things (IoT) software defned radio infrastructure as radio frequency sensors for military operations [49] Several difcult challenges and scenarios arise in defence.Te research hybridization of IoTs with satellite networks can deliver exceptional outcomes that were before unattainable Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering 2.6.Smart Industrial Automation.Te integration of modern technology to improve manufacturing and industrial processes is referred to as smart industrial automation, often known as Industry 4.0 or the Industrial Internet of Tings (IIoT) [57].In a variety of industrial areas, these technologies increase efciency, productivity, safety, and sustainability.Manufacturing and industrial processes are being transformed by smart industrial automation, which makes them more efcient, versatile, and sensitive to changing needs [58].It is vital to the advancement of contemporary manufacturing and industrial enterprises.Table 7 summarises the applications of IoT as applied in the domain of smart industrial automation.

Smart Environment.
Smart environments are physical locations that have been improved with various technologies in order to increase efciency, sustainability, safety, and the overall quality of life [65].Tese smart environment applications have the ability to improve several parts of our life.Tese smart environment applications highlight how technology may be used to create more efcient, sustainable, and convenient living and working environments in a variety of disciplines.Table 8 summarises the applications of IoT as applied in the domain of smart environment.

Surveillance.
Smart surveillance is the application of new technologies such as artifcial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and the Internet of Tings (IoT) to improve traditional surveillance systems [72].Tese technologies have a wide range of applications in security, safety, and monitoring [73].Smart surveillance applications are constantly expanding as a result of breakthroughs in AI and IoT technology.While they provide several benefts in terms of security and safety, there are also worries regarding privacy and ethical consequences [74][75][76].Table 9 summarises the applications of IoT as applied in the domain of surveillance.
2.9.Customer Asset Tracking.Customer asset tracking, also known as customer equipment tracking, is the monitoring and management of assets or equipment held by a company but under the control of customers or clients.Tis is especially efective in increasing customer service efciency and asset utilization in a variety of sectors [81][82][83].Efective customer asset monitoring may help to streamline processes, decrease losses, improve customer happiness, and ultimately save money [84].It is frequently accomplished by utilising technologies such as RFID (Radio-Frequency Identifcation), barcoding, GPS tracking, and asset management software.Table 10 summarises the applications of IoT as applied in the domain of customer asset tracking.

IoT Security Challenges
Te rapid proliferation of Internet of Tings (IoT) devices has brought numerous benefts, but it has also introduced signifcant security risks and vulnerabilities.Several studies and reports have highlighted the potential challenges associated with IoT security [90][91][92].Figure 2 summarises the security challenges in IoT ecosystem.
According to Sikder one of the most major concerns about Internet of Tings (IoT) devices is the threat of unauthorized access [93].In addition, to Meneghello et al., if adversaries successfully infltrate these devices, they will be able to exploit security faws, perhaps exfltrating sensitive data or coordinating device subversion [94].Table 11 highlights the widespread security faws intrinsic to the IoT ecosystem.

Author
Smart homes IoT [51] Tis study found that IoT-based smart home technology can increase home security and energy efciency.IoT can alleviate the difculties that the elderly and handicapped encounter.Smart home technologies based on IoT have a bright future [52] Te study found out that IoT is a growing Internet service with applications in industrial Wireless sensor network (WSN) and smart homes.In an IoT setting, smart homes may be utilised to automate home duties.Tere are challenges and issues with the IoT and smart home systems, but solutions may be discovered [53] According to the fndings, IoT is a growing popularity among millennials for delivering smart home gadgets that can be operated remotely.Home automation and smart homes are the most visible IoT services, ofering increased efciency and comfort [54] Tis study emphasised how IoT technology is utilised in smart homes for security, privacy, personalisation, and physical environment control [55] Te study found out that some potential solutions address the issues connected with smart home applications, such as adopting low-power consumption wireless technologies like Zigbee [56] According to the fndings of this study, a low-cost home automation system has been built utilising IoT, allowing users to manage and monitor household appliances and electrical machinery via a website.Tis device may monitor a home's metering system, allowing customers and dealers to detect irregularities in the power distribution system.Te planned system includes an online billing system 6 Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering Tese vulnerabilities underscore the pressing need for a comprehensive and proactive approach to securing IoT ecosystems, encompassing robust authentication, encryption, frmware maintenance, interface security, patch management, credential management, physical protection, user education, and privacy preservation.Addressing these issues is paramount in mitigating the ever-evolving threats that IoT devices face.With the emergence of AI and the benefts it ofers, it is susceptible to numerous challenges.Current AI security challenges include adversarial attacks, privacy concerns, bias, model security vulnerabilities, reliability issues, explainability gaps, data poisoning, and scalability challenges.Interdisciplinary eforts are needed to enhance robustness, transparency, and regulatory compliance while mitigating risks to privacy, fairness, and intellectual property.We have synthesized the literature and proposed a threat taxonomy for IoT applications, privacy, and security in Table 12.

Privacy Concerns in IoT
Te massive amount of data collected by IoT devices raises signifcant privacy concerns as it involves the gathering of personal information, behavioural patterns, and sensitive data from individuals.Figure 3 shows some of the key privacy issues and challenges associated with IoT data collection: Privacy problems in IoT are intertwined with a web of authorization issues, anonymization quandaries, data retention complexity, data sharing quandaries, and profling paradoxes [105].As we navigate through this perilous terrain, it becomes clear that privacy is more than just a legislative concern; it is inextricably linked to the underlying fabric of IoT functioning.To address these challenges, a multifaceted solution incorporating technology, legislation, user education, authorization, and security frameworks is required.Drawing from the literature provided, we propose privacy and security challenges for each IoT layer in Table 13.

IoT Security Solutions
Existing security measures and protocols for protecting IoT devices and networks have evolved to address the unique challenges posed by the wide-scale deployment of IoT devices [106][107][108].Figure 4 summaries the proposed IoT solutions.
According to the literature, IoT privacy and security solutions are being suggested from a range of viewpoints, including unique concepts and technologies [109,110].Tey

Author
Smart industrial automation IoT [59] Te study highlights that IoT and industrial automation encounter various issues, including data and service security, trust, data integrity, information privacy, scalability, interoperability, and automation domain constraints.Te study combines the concepts of the raspberry pi industrial Workstation and industrial automation with IoT [60] In the industrial space, industrial automation plays a critical role in reducing time to market while maintaining good quality and productivity.Tis research describes the utilization of cloud and IoT capabilities to control devices and analyse the data generated by them [61] Te study underscores that IoT systems may employ various processing and communication architectures, technologies, and design techniques [62] Te paper proposes the integration of the internet of things (IoT) for the transformation of smart factories.Te research highlights the connectivity of IoT and the distributed nature of intelligent devices.Tese devices, each exhibiting autonomous or semiautonomous behavior, enable higher production and better utilization of human resources by eliminating signifcant information gaps about real-time factory conditions.Coupled with innovative techniques like additive manufacturing, this approach facilitates the realization of an optimized advanced manufacturing foor and the vision of a lean, agile, and integrated factory of the future [63] Te paper underlined that IoT is a crucial technology of the Fourth industrial revolution and ofers a potential opportunity to establish infuential services and applications for manufacturing.IoT enables smart machines to communicate with one another in order to share data and information, which is required for complex systems to make real-time choices.IoT has a favourable infuence on sustainable development, particularly in terms of manufacturing dimensions [64] By analysing industrial IoT technology and its implementation in manufacturing workshops, this study proposes a reference design and building route for smart factories.A manufacturing workshop industrial IoT solution is provided, incorporating important technologies such as WSN and RFID.Te system proves efective in monitoring production line data, as evidenced by the performance analysis in terms of real-time and quality Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering use a frst-principle approach to redefne network security for IoT in their study [111].Tey address three primary concerns: (i) Te need for scalable alternatives to traditional perimeter defence, as IoT networks necessitate more adaptive security procedures.(ii) Tey propose new ways for managing security inside deployed IoT networks, recognising the unique problems of safeguarding a large number of linked devices.
(iii) Tey suggest new security policies that provide the essential generality to regulate IoT devices and networks across a wide range of use cases, recognising the need for fexibility in IoT security.
Table 14 summarises the recent proposed IoT security solutions.

IoT Interoperability.
IoT interoperability refers to the ability of systems to seamlessly communicate and collaborate across various IoT devices and platforms.It is essential

Author
Smart environment IoT [66] By analysing industrial IoT technology and its implementation in manufacturing workshops, this study proposes a reference design and building route for smart factories.A manufacturing workshop industrial IoTs solution is provided, incorporating important technologies such as WSN and RFID.Te system proves efective in monitoring production line data, as evidenced the performance analysis in terms of real-time and quality [67] According to the fndings of this study, the internet of things is considered a critical component in the development of smart environments.Te internet of things is considered a critical component in the development of smart environments [68] According to this study, the internet of things and smart environments are radically changing the way organisations operate and how individuals interact with the physical world.Te ability to communicate such intelligence to other machines, particularly those local and those providing cloud-based deep learning and AI capabilities, has enormous promise for enhancing people's lives in a variety of ways [69] Te internet of things (IoT) is identifed as the primary facilitator of smart environments in this study, including smart cities, building automation, smart transportation, smart grids, and healthcare.Te internet of things permits the global networking of billions of small smart things.Te internet of things (IoT) may be used to increase the efciency and efcacy of smart environments [70] Te term "smart environment" is defned as a technology that provides numerous facilities and solutions for many environmental application difculties in this study.
IoT technology has the ability to give benefts that contribute to the prospect of establishing a green planet and a sustainable lifestyle.IoT enables environmental sensors to communicate with other devices, such as smart phones, through bluetooth or Wi-Fi in order to provide massive volumes of data to the network [71] According to the fndings, the internet of things is a technological revolution that symbolises the future of computers and communications.IoT ofers various potential monitoring uses, such as recognising, automating, monitoring, and controlling items Table 9: Surveillance.
Author Surveillance [77] Te paper presents a security surveillance system in buildings based on IoT using raspberry pi, with features like remote door locking, intruder detection, and alerting the owner.Additional features include rain sensing windows and automatic light control for energy efciency.Te main objective is to implement wireless home automation features and home security [78] Tey proposed a system that exhibits superior performance in resource efciency, agility, and scalability compared to traditional IoT surveillance systems and state-of-the-art approaches [79] Te paper focuses on utilising IoT and computer vision for detecting faces in security applications, enhancing security systems by automating detection processes and sending notifcations to users [80] Development of an IoT-based mobile smart home surveillance application aimed at enhancing security, privacy, and energy efciency by controlling smart sensors and recording data for future insights 8 Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering Author Customer asset tracking [85] Te main fndings include the identifcation of IoT technologies' feasibility in asset management, highlighting research potential for smart factories, and recognising signifcant potential for IoT technologies in managing diferent asset groups [86] Te proposed solution ofers a lightweight approach without integrating blockchain into IoT devices, meeting the demand for specifc features in IoT blockchain applications, and addressing security issues in existing centralized IoT solutions [87] Te paper presents an asset management system utilising NFC and IoT technologies to track and update asset information, addressing issues of inaccurate asset recording.A low-cost IoT-based NFC reader/writer is introduced as a companion module [88] Te paper emphasises the need for integrating diverse devices and data ingestion mechanisms into a unifed platform for security and data segregation, the development of interoperable platforms to meet increasing demand, and the goal of providing a user-friendly interface for managing devices and data visualization [89] Te paper focuses on developing innovative IoT devices for better management of asset infrastructure through on-demand tracking and monitoring of rental items using various wireless technologies.Te proposed architecture aims to maximize connectivity distance, minimise energy consumption, and address rental asset management challenges while ensuring scalability and quality-of-service.A case study is presented to support the feasibility of the proposed solution in real-world rental management asset scenarios

Physical Security
Device Security Data Security Network Security Privacy

Security weaknesses Description [95]
Inadequate authentication A signifcant risk arises as a result of poor or inefcient authentication procedures, allowing unauthorized access to IoT devices [96] Poor encryption Weak or non-existent encryption protocols can leave data transmissions susceptible to interception and compromise, jeopardising the secrecy of critical information [97] Vulnerable frmware Outdated or inadequately patched frmware can be exploited, leaving devices susceptible to known vulnerabilities that may have been addressed in newer versions [98] Insecure interfaces Interfaces and APIs that lack sufcient security safeguards can be used by malicious actors to infuence device functionalities or undermine their integrity [99] Insufcient patching Patch management practises that are irregular or poor may expose devices to known vulnerabilities for lengthy periods of time, raising the chance of exploitation [100] Default credentials Manufacturers' use of default usernames and passwords makes it easier for unauthorized individuals to gain access, a signifcant security oversight [101] Lack of physical security Insufcient safeguards against physical tampering, or an adversary can expose IoT devices to both direct physical attacks and unauthorized access, potentially leading to device compromise [102] Inadequate user education End-users, often lacking awareness or understanding of IoT device security best practices, may inadvertently contribute to security breaches through misconfguration or uninformed usage [103] Privacy concerns Inadequate data protection and privacy measures may expose user data to unnecessary risks, raising concerns about unauthorized data collection and misuse [104] Denial of service (DoS) IoT devices may be susceptible to DoS attacks, rendering them inoperative and disrupting critical services or functions for the success and widespread adoption of the Internet of Tings [112].Abdelouahid et al. [113] proposed a universal meta-model for IoT interoperability, which is based on organizational concepts such as service, compilation, activity, and architectures.Te framework provides a structured approach for understanding and resolving

Conclusion
In the landscape of Internet of Tings (IoT) applications, privacy and security emerge as pivotal considerations.While IoT holds the potential to revolutionize businesses and enhance our daily lives, it also presents signifcant challenges that demand careful attention.Privacy and security, particularly concerning data collection, anonymization, retention, and sharing, stand out as pressing issues.Te infux of data from IoT devices ofers immense potential for insights and innovation, yet it also raises concerns about personal data privacy, behavioral surveillance, and data exploitation.Terefore, addressing these challenges is crucial to ensuring the responsible and ethical deployment of IoT technologies, fostering trust among users and stakeholders alike.By implementing robust privacy and security measures, fostering transparency, and adhering to regulatory frameworks, the potential of IoT can be realized while safeguarding individual privacy rights and mitigating associated risks.Such endeavors are essential to  unlocking the full potential of IoT in driving positive societal impacts and economic growth, while also ensuring the protection of privacy and security in an increasingly interconnected world.Te fndings underscore the intrinsic relationship between privacy concerns and the operation of IoT.As the IoT becomes increasingly integrated into our daily lives and industries, maintaining a steadfast focus on privacy and security is imperative.Te diverse concepts and approaches highlighted in this survey ofer a glimpse of a potential path forward.Trough a combination of technological advancements, regulatory frameworks, and user education initiatives, we can navigate the complexities of IoT while safeguarding individual privacy and security.
As we embark on the ongoing journey of the Internet of Tings, these insights and innovations will undoubtedly shape the trajectory of our interconnected world.By addressing privacy and security challenges head-on, we can unlock the full potential of IoT and create a future that is both technologically advanced and ethically responsible.
6.1.Future Trends and Innovations.In light of the vast opportunities presented by IoT, future industry standards should incorporate AI and machine learning into IoT devices and platforms.Tis integration enables the analysis of massive datasets, the extraction of meaningful insights, and real-time decision-making, thereby fostering more intelligent and autonomous IoT applications.AI-powered predictive maintenance enhances device performance and efciency, while edge analytics improves data processing at the network's edge, resulting in faster responsiveness and lower latency.Embracing edge computing in future designs reduces the need to transmit all data to centralized cloud servers due to its proximity to devices, leading to faster data processing, lower latency, and increased privacy and security, especially benefcial for real-time data analysis applications.Additionally, the integration of 5 G technology into these devices enhances their capabilities.To address security and privacy challenges, future research should focus on integrating blockchain technology, ofering decentralized and tamper-proof data storage and validation, secure device identifcation, data integrity, and transparent transaction records.

Figure 3 :
Figure 3: Summary of privacy concerns in IoT.

Table 2 :
Smart healthcare applications of IoT.

Table 3 :
Smart transportation applications of IoT.

Table 4 :
Smart agriculture applications of IoT.

Table 5 :
Smart military applications of IoT.

Table 6 :
Smart-homes applications of IoT.

Table 7 :
Smart industrial automation applications of IoT.

Table 8 :
Smart environment applications of IoT.

Table 11 :
Summary of IoT security challenges.

Table 13 :
Proposed IoT layers with privacy and security challenges.