Like several parts in the Middle East, the West Bank is in a significant water scarcity status. Palestinians use groundwater as the main water source, supplying more than 90% of the consumed water in the West Bank. The aim of this study is to enhance the knowledge on drinking water quality in the West Bank. Groundwater quality data was obtained from the Palestinian Water Authority, including the years 2015 and 2016, from the Northern six districts of the West Bank. The water quality data were analyzed and matched with the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines and the Palestinian standards for drinking water quality. The findings of this study revealed that groundwater in the north of the West Bank comply with several drinking water requirements including total hardness, pH, and sodium and chloride content. Conversely, 18% of the samples exceed the limits for nitrate concentration. The fecal
Groundwater is a priceless resource of drinking water that is used for domestic utilization, industrial activities, as well as agriculture. It is commonly of good quality as compared to other water resources due to filtration in soil [
While the population growth and economic development are continual, leading to water shortage worldwide, water scarcity will certainly affect urban development and food production [
Water can be contaminated by microbiological, physical, and chemical pollutants, each of which is related to different causes and health-associated issues and results. Microbiological contamination of water sources is mainly caused by the improper disposal of animal and human wastes, giving rise to waterborne diseases [
In the West Bank/Palestine, economic and population growth will result in raising the groundwater demand, as it is the major resource of water in Palestine. Deterioration of water quality in Palestine and worldwide is a key environmental challenge that requires urgent action. The aim of this study is to examine the quality of drinking water from the groundwater in the northern districts of the West Bank/Palestine. The investigated parameters include chemical, physical, and microbiological characteristics for assessing the levels of groundwater pollution.
The West Bank is located in the centric mountainous land of Palestine. The region is surrounded by the Dead Sea and the Jordan River from the east and the 1948 line from the south, west, and north. It has a land area of 5,655 km2, with a population of 2,921,170 at the end of the year 2018. The climate of the West Bank is Mediterranean to a continental atmosphere. The study area as shown in Figure
The West Bank map including the north districts [
The major aquifers in the West Bank [
Groundwater quality data were collected from the official records of the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA). Water samples, with a total number of 76, were collected and tested by the PWA staff in the years 2015 and 2016 from the groundwater wells in the districts located in the north of the West Bank.
For each water sample, the physicochemical and biological characteristics were measured using standard testing procedures [
The obtained data were recorded and categorized in tables as Microsoft Excel spread sheets for further analysis. The obtained water characteristics were then compared to the drinking water requirements set by the Palestine Standards Institution (PSI) [
The results of groundwater physiochemical and biological parameters are presented in Table
Physiochemical and microbiological parameters of the groundwater in the Northern governorates of the West Bank, the PSI standards, and the WHO guideline.
Physiochemical parameter | Range of measured values | Avg. ± S.D | WHO guidelines [ |
PSI standards [ |
Samples over MCLa of PSI (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total hardness ( |
204–485 | 351 ± 60.2 | NA |
500 | 0% |
Chloride (mg/L) | 24–232 | 32 ± 44.7 | Up to 250 | Up to 250 | 0% |
Conductivity EC ( |
401–6130 | 820 ± 654 | Up to 2000 | Up to 2000 | 1.4% |
pH | 7.09–8.47 | 7.6 ± 0.8 | 6.5–8.5 | 6.5–8.5 | 0% |
Sodium (Na) | 21–77 | 32 ± 20.0 | 100 | 200 | 0% |
Nitrate ( |
1–82 | 32 ± 20.0 | Up to 50 | 50 | 18% |
Turbidity (NTU) | 0.3–6.4 | 1.4 ± 1.3 | Up to 5.0 | Up to 5.0 | 2.6% |
Temperature (°C) | 18–27 | 23 ± 1.41 | NA | NA | NA |
Total |
0–40 | 0.5 ± 4.58 | 0 | 0–3 | 1.3 |
Fecal |
0–25 | 0.33 ± 2.87 | 0 | 0 | 1.3 |
aMCL: maximum concentration limit according to PSI [
The measured water temperature values were in the range of 18 and 27°C, with a mean value of 23°C. This is a typical temperature range within the Mediterranean region [
The pH results revel that groundwater in the study area has nearly neutral to slightly alkaline characteristics, with a narrow range of 7.09–8.47. The variations in pH values could be due to geological and seasonal variations in the alkalinity of surrounding areas to springs sources [
A small fraction of the samples (2.6%) was found to have turbidity values above the permission limit for drinking water. The maximum turbidity value in the tested groundwater samples is 6.4 NTU which slightly exceeds the permission limit of 5.0 NTU [
Electrical conductivity expresses the efficiency of water to conduct electricity, as it has a direct relation with total dissolved solids (TDS) in water [
Water quality classification for various ranges of EC in
Range of EC ( |
Water quality classification [ |
Percentage of samples (%) |
---|---|---|
<250 | Excellent | 0 |
250–750 | Good | 53.4 |
750–2,000 | Permissible | 45.2 |
2,000–3,000 | Doubtful | 0 |
>3,000 | Unsuitable | 1.4 |
The results show that total hardness ranges between 204 and 485 mg/L as CaCO3 in the study area, which complies with the drinking water requirements. Water quality can be classified according to total hardness as indicated in Table
Water quality classification for various ranges of hardness.
Total hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) | Degree of hardness [ |
Percentage of samples (%) |
---|---|---|
0–75 | Soft | 0 |
75–150 | Moderately hard | 0 |
150–300 | Hard | 19 |
>300 | Very hard | 81 |
Chloride concentration in the tested groundwater is less than the MCL of 250 mg/L. Differently, Danoun [
Sodium concentration in the tested groundwater samples is below the MCL according to the PSI and WHO. Differently, Danoun [
Nitrate concentration in 18% of the tested samples exceeded the PSI and WHO drinking water requirements. This excess nitrate may cause infant methemoglobinemia [
The results of the microbiological parameters in terms of total and fecal
The presence of microbial indicators in groundwater makes it unacceptable for drinking, at least without treatment. Table
Distribution of the tested groundwater samples for total
Recommended treatment procedure [ |
Range of total |
Degree of contamination | Percentage of samples (%) |
---|---|---|---|
No treatment required | 0–3 | 0 | 98.7 |
Chlorination only | 4–50 | 1 | 1.3 |
Flocculation, sedimentation, and then chlorination | 51–50,000 | 2 | 0 |
Very high contamination, need special treatment | >50,000 | 3 | 0 |
CFU: colony forming unit.
Distribution of tested groundwater samples for fecal
Range of fecal |
Degree of risk [ |
Number and percentage of tested samples |
---|---|---|
0 | No risk | 75 (98.7%) |
1–10 | Low risk | 0 (0%) |
11–100 | Moderate risk | 1 (1.3%) |
101–1000 | High risk | 0 (0%) |
>1000 | Very high risk | 0 (0%) |
CFU: colony forming unit.
The findings of this study revealed that ground water in the north of the West Bank complies with several drinking water requirements set by the PSI [
Here are some strategies recommended in order to limit the water crisis. First of all, it is important to assure the Palestinians water rights and then strengthen the water institutions in order to enable them to manage water sources. In order to decrease and control the pollution in the aquifers, wastewater treatment plants must be provided, fundamentally for big societies, as a first priority. Sanitation department should be improved and completed in the districts, and supervision programs must be performed to assure the suitable use of fertilizers. Furthermore, in the rural areas that are not expected to be sewered soon, emptied septage out of the cesspits must be properly handled. In addition, controlling of the industrial waste is a must.
The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
The authors would like to thank the PWA for sampling and analysis of water samples in their laboratories.