Assessment of Bacteriological Quality and Physiochemical Parameters of Domestic Water Sources in Jenin Governorate: A Case Study

Water quality of drinking water is a concern in Palestine due to possible pollution sources. There is a demand for investigating the quality of municipal water supply. This study aimed to assess the quality of domestic water in Jenin Governorate located in the north of the West Bank. The methodology of this research was based on field sampling and laboratory standard testing. The tested parameters included (1) physicochemical parameters of electrical conductivity, turbidity, total hardness, salinity, pH, and total alkalinity, (2) chemical contents including the contents of nitrate, nitrite, sulfate, chloride, sodium, potassium, aluminum, and fluoride, and (3) biological contents including total coliforms and fecal coliforms. The water quality parameters were compared with the acceptable limits set by local and international standards. The findings confirm that most of the values of the investigated parameters are within the acceptable standard limits. No pollution of heavy metals is detectable. On the other hand, there are limited pollution contents in terms of the total dissolved solid (TDS), total hardness, and calcium. Furthermore, the biological parameters indicate that there are low to very high risks in a fraction of the water quality samples in terms of total coliforms and fecal coliforms. This is believed to be due to the presence of septic tanks in the neighborhoods of the sampling locations. For these cases, biological disinfection treatments are recommended before human use with an essential need for the construction of urban sewer systems. Furthermore, water treatment for harness removal may be required.


Introduction
Water is a key component in human life either straight forwardly as drinking water or in a roundabout way as a constituent of food and is served in diferent utilizations in our everyday life [1][2][3][4][5][6]. Furthermore, water is an essential parameter in the public health due to possible transmission diseases [7]. Te evaluation of water quality is an essential issue, and the security of water quantity is a critical point in the governmental plans and strategies [8]. Drinking water as well as entertainment and the natural life environment can be seriously infuenced by contaminations [9,10]. Chemical spills can intimidate water quality and human health.
Palestine and other countries in the Middle East sufer from water shortage due to predominantly semiarid to arid climatic conditions [11]. Water is a critical issue in the Middle East [12]. Water resources in Palestine are limited; hence, water shortage and water quality are imminent [13,14]. Tere are three groundwater aquifer bowls in Palestine, which are situated in the West Bank, but controlled by Israel. An obvious lack of fresh water for domestic, industrial, and agricultural purposes was identifed as one of the main issues in Palestine [15]. For example, the allowed daily consumption of water per capita in Hebron and Nablus cities in the West Bank of Palestine is nearly 50 L/day and the average daily consumption in the whole of the West Bank is 66 L/day [12,16]. On the other hand, the WHO has set the minimum per capita daily consumption of 100 L/day [17]. Arid and semiarid areas sufer from scarcity of water resources, so the protection of existing resources is a priority for people. Water pollution occurs in the form of altering the composition of the watercourse components due to human activity, and then, the resulting water becomes less suitable for natural uses [18][19][20][21][22][23]. In the Gaza strip, a study of the quality of drinking water revealed low pH and TDS levels, while microbiological analyses showed that the total coliform for distribution points was 58 CFU/100 ml, and in the household storage tanks, it was found to be 171 CFU/100 [24]. Te reduction in water quality locally and worldwide is considered one of the environmental challenges that requires urgent action [25,26]. In fact, the decline in water quality is a refection of poverty. Water quality is dependent on the logistics and practices of waste disposal and wastewater discharge [18,[27][28][29][30][31]. Municipal wastewater and waste are two of the pollution sources of water resources. Te main problem of solid waste is the leaching of possible hazardous substances, the severity of which is dependent on horizontal distance to the water sources, temperature of the area, pollution content, and age [32]. Te possible reasons for water pollution in the West Bank were identifed to include the absence of sewage networks in many rural areas, the utilization of cesspits for domestic wastewater, and the inappropriate waste management [13]. Any released toxins can migrate into ground water resources where poisons interface with nature. Ten, the ground water resources experience physical and substance changes, and they are consolidated into the earth resulting in changes in water quality [33][34][35]. In general, monitoring discharges of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) has many benefts for the protection of drinking water resources [36]. Chemical contaminations include nitrate content that may result from biological waste from humans and animals, plant debris, and seepage [37,38]. Groundwater contamination with heavy metals, together with the geogenic presence of some toxic metals (e.g., arsenic and fuoride), is of increasing concern due to their severe ecological and public health impacts [39][40][41]. Te main sources of heavy metal pollution are agricultural runofs and uncontrolled discharges of wastewater from industries, including metal electroplating and mining [42]. Trafc is also an important source of heavy metal pollution [11,[43][44][45].
Te pollution of water resources afects the quality of the municipal water supply. In addition, for municipal water supply, colored water may be obtained due to the deposited salts in the inner surface of network pipes. In the presence of manganese (Mn), there is a strong possibility for the formation of discoloration such as "black water." According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, the limit value of manganese is 50 μg/L [46]. Tese pollutants in drinking water have various impacts on public health: Water hardness can cause kidney stone formation [47]. Water for human use must be free of microbiological contaminations that are pathogenic to humans [48,49]. Water contamination with bacteria, protozoa, and viruses causes diarrhea, which can cause the death of infants (for example, cholera and hepatitis) [50,51]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the diarrheal diseases globally were estimated at 3% in 2016 [40]. For noncleaned supplies, up to 10 fecal coliforms (FC) per 100 mL are permitted [52]. Sulfate content may have a laxative efect on humans, so the maximum contaminate level is 250 mg/L. Chloride concentrations above 250 ppm could afect the taste of drinking water [53]. Aluminum can lead to Alzheimer's disease [54]. Te nitrate limit according to the WHO guidelines is 50 mg/ L as NO 3 [55]. On the other hand, contamination with nitrite is more dangerous as a high concentration of nitrate can lead to methemoglobinemia [56]. High concentrations of salinity cause cholera, while small quantities of salt are essential for organizing the fuid balance of the human body [57]. Te ammonia limit in groundwater according to the WHO [58] guidelines is 0.2 mg/L.
Water quality is usually monitored by measuring various parameters covering chemical, physical, and microbiological characteristics [59][60][61]. Te physicochemical parameters include total solids (TS), total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), pH, dissolved oxygen, hardness, and chlorine and sodium contents [62]. High water turbidity may refect the pollution of water from leaching of organic matters as well as domestic and industrial wastes. High electrical conductivity (EC) refects a high concentration of soluble salts which makes water conductive for electric current [63]. Total hardness (mg/l) is the sum of calcium and magnesium hardness. Te microbial parameters include total coliforms and fecal coliforms [15,47,64].
Little efort was made for assessing water quality in the West Bank areas [65,66]. In a previous case study [66], the quality of drinking water obtained from local springs in the West Bank was evaluated. Te previous study assisted in promoting the public use of the springs as a water supply. Te publication of such case studies responds to a need for paving the road for performing similar case studies for other regions. Tis appears very obviously in the high citations of the previous case study [66] within a short time period from its publication date. Tere are concerns about the possible contaminations of municipal water supply that require the attention of the various authorities. Te Ministry of Health is interested in assessing the quality of municipal water to prevent any potential impacts on human and public health. Tere is a knowledge gap in the published work on chemical, physical, and biological parameters for municipal water supplies. Currently, an ongoing international research project is concerned with the quality of water in schools for promoting public health. Consequently, perfuming case studies on the quality of municipal water supply can assist the authorities (water and health) in their planning and management eforts. Furthermore, the novelty of such a case study is concentrated in providing new information with more investigated parameters for better assessment of the water quality and providing a model approach for subsequent studies in other areas (generalization). Responding to these needs, the main research objectives are measuring the chemical, physical, and biological parameters for municipal water supply in the defned research area (Jenin district), as a case study, and evaluating the suitability of water quality for human use by comparing the measured parameters with the limits set by both national and international quality standards (the Palestinian standards (PSI) and the guidelines of the WHO). Te research variables included pH, EC, total hardness, concentrations of nitrate, sodium ions, total chlorine, residual chlorine, turbidity, and total and fecal coliforms.

Description of the Study Area.
Te domain of this study was Jenin Governorate located in the north of the West Bank. It is one of the 16 governorates of the Palestinian authority. Te Jenin Governorate area comprises about 10.5% of the West Bank area and is considered one of the best agricultural areas in Palestine. Most of municipal administration of this governorate land is under the Palestinian authority. It is bordered by Nablus from the south and by Tulkarem from the southwest. Its location is between 90 and 750 m above sea level, and the highest elevation is at Jabal Hureish, while the lowest elevation is at El Mukhabba area [67]. Jenin Governorate is located above the Northeastern Groundwater Basins, the capacity of which is about 140 MCM/year [68]. Groundwater can be obtained at 50 m below the ground surface. Te other sources of water include seasonal lakes such as Marj Sanur. Te daily water consumption per capita in Jenin Governorate is about 50.2 L/ day [69]. Te projected mid-year population for Jenin Governorate in 2022 is 345875 persons [70].

Sampling.
Te sampling was performed during 2018 and 2019 from villages, towns, and cities in Jenin district in the West Bank of Palestine. Te samples of drinking water were taken from wells, houses, restaurants, and others. Te samples were collected by the Palestinian Ministry of Health to ensure the chemical, physical, and biological qualities of the drinking water. Te samples were collected in pyrexsterilized glass bottles (1000 mL), fltered through a 0.45 µm flter (Schleicher and Schuell ME 25, Taufkirchen, Germany), divided into two fractions, and stored at 4°C. Tables 1-3 list the distribution of samples based on the investigated parameters.

Analysis.
Water samples were taken by feld crew and were then transferred to the Palestinian public health laboratories where each parameter was analyzed. Te physicochemical, chemical, and biological characteristics were measured according to the standard testing procedures. Te tools used included a portable digital pH meter, an EC meter, a turbidity meter, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and membrane fltration. Te water samples taken for analyses of cations and trace metals were acidifed (pH < 1.5) with analytical grade concentrated nitric acid.
Te pH and conductivity were measured in the feld immediately after or during sampling, using a portable HACHsensION1 multimeter, with a combined electrode, and a portable HACH conductivity meter (HACH, Loveland, CO, USA). Te total dissolved solid (TDS) and the salinity were measured using a salinity meter, Hach CO150 (Hach Company, Loveland, Columbia, USA). Te remaining physicochemical parameters were tested using a DR 2400 spectrophotometer as demonstrated elsewhere [71]. Te concentrations of Ca, Mg, Al, Fe, K, Na, and Ag were analyzed using ICP-MS (Agilent Technologies 7500 Series, Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA). Te total and fecal coliforms counts were measured by the membrane fltration technique [72]. Te measured parameters for each of the collected samples were tabulated, and then, the mean values and standard deviations were estimated and compared with the limits set by the WHO and the PSI.

Physiochemical Parameters.
Te results of the physiochemical parameters of the drinking water in Jenin Governorate along with allowable limits of the PSI [73] standards and the WHO [58] guideline values are listed in Table 4.    Table 4 lists the range, the mean, and the standard deviation for each measured physiochemical parameter. Te values of electrical conductivity are within the range of 242-1833 μS/cm, and the mean value is 890 ± 302 μS/cm. Table 5 lists the classifcations of water quality for various ranges of EC and the percentage of samples in each range. All measured values of EC were within the acceptable limit set by the WHO and PSI standards (2000 μScm −1 ): the majority of the tested samples (77%) were classifed as permissible, while 19.2% were classifed as good and 3.8% were classifed as excellent. Overall, 100% of the samples are within the PSI and WHO standards, and hence, there are no concerns regarding the soluble salts. Te observed wide range of EC is an indication of the content of dissolved salts such as sodium chloride and potassium chloride. Te values of the salinity are within the range of 0.01-0.050%, and the average value is 0.07 ± 0.10%. High concentrations of salinity lead to diarrhea and waterborne diseases such as cholera. Salinity is related to electrical conductivity. Tus, these two parameters are correlated well in this study. A wider range of EC (473-1406 μScm −1 ) was reported for drinking water from natural springs in the study area as documented in a previous study [66], which was attributed to diferences in geological structures, agricultural activity, and soil conditions within the study area.
Te values of TDS are within the range of 36-1063, and the average value is 465 ± 192 ppm. It is obvious that 97.57% of samples are within the acceptable limits of the PSI and the WHO. Only 2.43% of samples have TDS values higher than the PSI acceptable limit, and hence, there are no major concerns regarding the dissolved solids. Te TDS is correlated with turbidity: the values of the turbidity are within the range of 0.1-3.63 NTU, and the average value is 0.49 ± 0.76 NTU. All the samples are within the PSI and WHO standards, and hence, there are no concerns regarding the solids. A wider range of turbidity (0.05-9.9 NTU) was reported for drinking water from natural springs as documented in a previous study [66] which was attributed to human activities and an increase in the suspended particulate matter. However, a narrow range of 0-2 was reported for natural springs from other areas (Wadi Al Qilt springs) [74].
Te values of the pH are within the range of 6.4-8.12, and the average value is 7.33 ± 0.37. All recorded values satisfy the PSI standards and the WHO [58] guidelines. Te water quality in terms of pH is acceptable. Tese results are close to those reported for drinking water from natural springs [66]. Te pH values are related to the total alkalinity. Te values of the total alkalinity are within the range of 93.1-354, and the average value is 164 ± 206. Tis indicates that there are no alkalinity risks from industrial and chemical pollution.

Chemical Parameters.
Te results of chemical parameters of drinking water in Jenin Governorate along with allowable limits of the PSI [73] standards and the WHO [58] guideline values are presented in Table 6. Table 6 lists the range, the mean, and the standard deviation for each of the following ions: nitrate, nitrite, sulfate, chloride, fuoride, ammonia, sodium, calcium, potassium, and magnesium.
Te values of nitrate concentration are within the range of 0-48 ppm, and the average value is 14.52 ± 11.54 ppm. All recorded values satisfy the PSI standards and the WHO [58] guidelines. Similarly, the values of nitrite concentration are within the range of 0-0.86 ppm, and the average value is 0.05 ± 0.03 ppm. All samples satisfy the WHO [58] guidelines. Tis obtained range for nitrate is narrower than that obtained previously for water from natural springs [66], with some groundwater resources contaminated with nitrate resulting from the penetration of nitrates from sewage and other wastes. However, the obtained range is close to that previously reported for water from springs in other areas (Wadi Al Qilt springs) [74]. Similarly, the values of the ammonia content are in the range of 0-2.63 ppm with an average value of 0.17 ± 0.5 ppm, which is lower than the WHO limit (1.5 ppm). Tis indicates that there are no risks from ammonia contaminations. Likewise, the values of sulfate concentration are within the range of 1.30-52.94 ppm, and the average value is 22.67 ± 12 ppm. All samples were within the limits of the PSI [73] and WHO [58] guidelines. Tis indicates that there are no risks from industrial pollution. Similarly, the values of fuoride concentration are within the range of 0.03-3.00 ppm, and the average value is 0.32 ± 0.05 ppm. All the samples are within the limits of the PSI [73] and WHO [58] standards.
Furthermore, the values of chloride concentration are within the range of 113.73-380.05 ppm, and the average value is 96.36 ± 97 ppm. All samples were within the limits of the PSI [73] and WHO [58] guidelines. Tese results are in line with the results for salinity as presented in Section 3.1 since salinity is correlated with the presence of sodium chloride that releases chloride ions and sodium ions. For a similar correlation, the values of sodium concentration are low, within the range of 9.551-108 ppm, and the average value is 43.42 ± 24.45 ppm. Te values of potassium concentration are of ranges between 0.384 and 7.481 ppm, and the average value is 3.00 ± 1.77 ppm. All recorded values of sodium and potassium concentrations are within the limits of the PSI [73] and WHO [58] guidelines, and a previous study [66] indicated that the chloride and sodium contents of water from springs had wider ranges, with some values exceeding the permission limits according to the PSI and WHO.
On the other hand, the values of calcium concentration for 34.6% of the samples are over the PSI standard limits (for samples obtained from wells). Te values of calcium concentration are within the range of 1.42-152.90 ppm, and the average value is 78.75 ± 40.20 ppm. Te calcium content is dependent on the geological aspects. Te contact of water with dolomite and limestone can lead to a high concentration of calcium [75]. High levels of calcium can lead to scaling [76]. Tese results are correlated with the obtained values of total hardness. Table 7 shows the water quality classifcation for various ranges of hardness. Most of the samples are classifed as hard or very hard. Tis leads to the deposition of white scales on the piping systems and may cause kidney stone formation [47]. 4 Journal of Environmental and Public Health Te results of the contents of heavy metals in drinking water in Jenin Governorate along with allowable limits of the PSI [73] standards and the WHO [58] guideline values are listed in Table 8. Table 8 lists the range, the mean, and the standard deviation for seven types of heavy metals. Te concentrations of all heavy metals analyzed (Al, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cr, Ag, and Cu) are below the maximum limits set by the PSI [73] and WHO [58] standards. Te concentrations of some heavy metals were found to be below the detection limit of the analytical methods applied. Tese results indicate that there are no risks associated with heavy metal contaminations.     Table 9 shows the analytical results of the microbiological parameters in terms of total coliforms, their classifcations according to their level of contamination, and the recommended treatment procedure. It is clear that 85.5% of the samples satisfy the acceptable limits of the PSI standard. Tis means that no treatment is needed for this fraction before using for drinking or cooking. On the other hand, the remaining percentage of the samples (14.5%) is with values exceeding the acceptable limit, and thus, they are contaminated with microbiological pollutants. Among these contaminated cases, 8.71% must use chlorination, 4.4% need focculation, sedimentation, and chlorination, and 1.71% need advanced treatment using special treatment [12]. Table 10 lists the distribution of tested drinking water samples for fecal coliforms (CFU/100 mL) and their classifcations according to their degree of risk. A total of 2494 samples were analyzed for fecal coliforms, 93.30% of these samples possess no risk on health and 2.34% possess moderate risk, 0.9% possess a high risk, and 0.58% possess a very high risk based on the WHO guidelines and classifcation [12]. Te results of total and fecal coliforms indicate that there are sources of microbial pollution, the presence of which is unacceptable for drinking. A previous study [77] indicated that only three communities in Jenin Governorate are connected to the public wastewater collecting system, while 80% of communities use a septic tank for the disposal of wastewater. In areas where there is a high concentration of septic tanks, it is possible for pathogenic organisms to penetrate into wells or nearby surface water [78]. All the polluted samples were taken from the wells and springs.

Conclusions and Recommendations
Te fndings of the study show that most of the water quality parameters are within the acceptable limits of the PSI and WHO standards. Tese include electrical conductivity, turbidity, salinity, pH, total alkalinity, and concentrations of nitrate, nitrite, sulfate, chloride, sodium, potassium, aluminum, and fuoride ions. Furthermore, the concentrations of heavy metals including Zn, Fe, Pb, Cr, Ag, and Cu are within the permission limits, and hence, there is no potential impact on human health. Tis indicates that there is no impact of industrial pollution or excessive use of fertilizers on water quality within the study area. Te fndings of the TDS analysis indicate that 97.57% of samples are within the   acceptable limits, while only 2.43% are over the limit, which does not afect the human health but can cause the formation of scaling in water pipes, water heaters, and boilers. Te fndings of the total hardness indicate that the majority of samples are classifed as very hard to hard water due to the presence of high amount of dissolved calcium salts. Moreover, 34.61% of calcium samples are over the limit of the PSI. About 85% of the tested samples for TC show that there is no need for treatment before human use while the remaining percentage of samples are polluted and must be treated for safe use. On the other hand, 93% of the tested samples for FC indicate that there is no risk for human use. Wastewater discharging and unsafe disposal of wastewater are related to the microbial contamination content of TC and FC.
Based on the results of the study, the following recommendations are stated: (i) Water treatment for harness removal may be required (ii) Water disinfection is required for the removal of pathogens (ii) Tere is an essential need for the construction of urban sewer systems (iv) Tere is a need to increase the number of tests for heavy metals (v) Tere is a need for closing the polluted water sources until treated especially in cases polluted with TC and FC (vi) Tere is a need to increase the public awareness of people about the impacts of drinking polluted water

Data Availability
Te data used to support the fndings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.