Effect of Sand Roasting on Physicochemical, Thermal, Functional, Antinutritional, and Sensory Properties of Sattu , a Nourishing form of Chickpea

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Introduction
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) known as garbanzo bean is an old-world pulse, and in terms of production, it is considered as the third most important pulse crop after dry beans and feld peas [1]. Te chickpea comes in two varieties: desi and kabuli. Te desi (microsperma) had anthocyanin coloration on stalks, pink blooms, and thick seed coat while the kabuli (macrosperma) lacks anthocyanin coloration on stems, having white blooms, and white or beige-colored seed. Chickpeas are in high demand due to their nutritious content. In the semiarid tropics, chickpea forms a key part of the diets of those who cannot aford animal proteins or choose to be vegetarian. When compared to other pulses, chickpeas have a high carbohydrate and protein content, accounting for approximately 80% of the total dry seed mass [2].
Powdering and roasting of chickpeas, commonly known as sattu, is massively famous in several Indian states. Sattu is an age-old Indian cure for beating the heat and is taken in variety of forms from basic drinks to paranthas, laddoos, and litti chokhas [3]. Use of sand as a heating medium for simmering food grains is an ancient method, and it is adopted globally for roasting of several food grains. In this method, sand is heated in an open pan over a heating medium (gas stove coal, oil burner, wood, etc.); after that, food grains are added once the pan reaches the desired temperature varying from 150°C to 350°C in the process of roasting [4]. In order to promote overall acceptability, the roasting process transforms micro-and macronutrients into more palatable forms and enhances favour, color, texture, etc., [5]. Food grains exposed to high temperatures for a short time lose water more quickly, have less water activity, are crispier, have diferent antioxidant and functional characteristics, have a longer shelf life, and are more popular with consumers [6]. Te development of various roasting techniques and equipment, such as fuidized bed roasters, spouted bed roasters, rotary type roasters, microwave roasters, infrared roasters, superheated steam roasters, and air jet roasters, has been prompted by the rise in demand for roasted food grains and dependent fortifed foods as well as consumer concerns about hygiene. Most of these roasting techniques are laborious to use, produce slow and uneven production, and use signifcant energy [7]. Te development of such a technique will help decrease manual labour, save money, boost productivity, improve roast product uniformity, have a wider range of applications (working with a wide range of material to be roasted), and help to distribute heat evenly throughout the heating chamber and to all the food grains. In this research, the preparation of chickpea sattu by optimization of time and temperature using software tool (research surface methodology) has not been commenced until now. Te present research envisages that the efect of sand roasting on the antioxidant, functional, physicochemical, thermal, and antinutritional properties of chickpea sattu.

Materials.
Te raw material (hulled chickpea grain samples) was procured from IARI (variety: Pusa-372) at New Delhi, India. Te foreign particles in hulled chickpea grains were manually removed, and chemicals used for the current study were of analytical grade.

Preparation of Sattu.
At room temperature, chickpea grains were soaked in water for 50 minutes (2 : 1 water : grain). Chickpea grains were drained of water and air-dried for 20 minutes at room temperature. Chickpea grains were then cooked on an open pan with sand. Process optimization for sand roasting of sattu was carried out using statistical tool termed as response surface methodology (Design Expert: Stat-Ease, version 11 2020, Stat-Ease, Minn). Te defned process variables were temperature (180-200°C) and time (5− 15 mins). Central composite design was used and the responses measured were antioxidant properties and sensory evaluation. A digital laser infrared thermometer (DT-8550) was used to measure the temperature of the sand, and continuous stirring was carried out to ensure heating uniformly. Roasted chickpea grains were separated from the sand using fne wire mesh. Grains were ground in mixer grinder (Phillips HL 7505-02) and the four was sieved with a BSS 30 sieve. After that, the powdered four was packed in airtight bags and stored for further testing.

Experimental Design for the Preparation of Sattu by Sand
Roasting Method. Using Stat-Ease software, the experimental design and analysis were done using response surface methodology (Design Expert: Stat-Ease, version 11 2020, Stat-Ease, IBM, US). Te goal of the research was to create a multiple regression equation that expressed quality composition characteristics to the hypothesis that antioxidant qualities and overall acceptance of the product are related to sattu quality. Te experiments were carried out with two independent variables, i.e., temperature and time of product using a central composite design. Te experimental ranges of the time and temperature variables were 180-200°C and 5 min-15 min, respectively. A design matrix consists of 13 trail runs in it. Among all the responses (runs), 180°C for 15 min (B 15 ), 200°C for (I 10 ), and 228°C for 10 min (H 10 ) were observed to be most acceptable. Te obtained runs are shown in Table 1. Te quadratic model is given in the following equation: where Y signifes the measured response, β 0 is an intercept, β i is regression coefcients calculated from the observed experimental value of Y, and X i is coded levels of independent variables. Te X i X j and X 2 i denote the interaction and quadratic terms.  (I 10 ) was blended with 150 ml of water to make a sattu beverages. Sensory analysis was carried as per the method described by Shakeb et al. [8], with slight modifcations. Panel of 12 semitrained judges (six females and six males) were ofered the sattu beverages, which were coded. Te judges were given the task of grading the samples on a 9-point hedonic scale for color, taste, mouth feel, appearance, and overall acceptance: 9: like extremely, 8: like very much, 7: like moderately, 6: like slightly, 5: neither like nor dislike, 4: dislike slightly, 3: dislike moderately, 2: dislike very much, and 1: dislike extremely. All of the chosen judges were nonsmokers who had not eaten for two hours previous to the sensory evaluation. Te evaluation took place between 11 AM to 12 noon (IST).

Physical Properties of Chickpea Grain
2.5.1. Surface Area. Te surface areas of grains were determined by the procedure followed by Isıklı et al. [9]. It was calculated by the following formula: where L is length, T is thickness, and W is width.

Bulk
Density. Te bulk density (g/ml) of chickpea grains was measured by the procedure discussed by Karaj and Müller [10]. It was calculated by the given formula: Bulk density � mass of roasted grain bulk volume .  [11] and was calculated by the following formula: True density � mass of sample volume of displaced toulene .
2.5.4. Porosity. Te porosity of chickpea grains was analyzed from the bulk density and true density discussed by Mohsenin [12]. It was calculated by the given equation: Porosity � true density − bulk density true density × 100.
2.5.5. Coefcient of Static Friction. Te coefcient of static friction of chickpea grains was analyzed on wood and glass by discussed followed by Dutta et al. [13] and was calculated by the following equation: where "H" and "L" signifes the elevation and "L" represents the length of tilt plate in millimeters, respectively.

Geometric Mean Diameter and Sphericity.
Te geometric mean (D g ) diameter and sphericity (ϕ) of randomly chosen grains were analyzed by the following relationships [12]: where L represents length, W signifes width, and T is thickness.

Angle of Repose.
Angle of repose of chickpea grains was determined by the method described by Khan and Saini [14] and was calculated by the following equation: while 'ϕ' represents the angle of repose, "h" represents the height of pile (cm), and "D" is the diameter of pile (cm).

Color Characteristics.
Te color values (L, a, b) of sample were determined by a hand-held lovi-bond spectrocolorimeter (Hunter color lab, LC100).
2.8.3. Foaming Properties. Te activities of foams in four were measured by the procedure described by Jogihalli et al. [18] and it was calculated by the given equations:

Fourier Transfer Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). Te
Fourier transfer spectroscopy of native and treated four of the sample was determined by the procedure followed by Bashir and Aggarwal [17]. An ATR-FTIR spectrophotometer was used to get the sample's FTIR spectra at room temperature (Perkin Elmer). Te bands were placed in a scale order of 400 to 4000 cm − 1 .
2.11. Antioxidant Properties 2.11.1. Total Phenolic Content. Te phenolic content of four sample extracts was analyzed by using Folin-Ciocalteu reagent followed by Yu et al. [19].

DPPH Inhibition.
Te % DPPH of native and treated sample was analyzed by the procedure described by Yu et al. [20] and was computed by the given formula: 2.11.3. Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Potential. Te ferric reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) of native and treated four was analyzed by the procedure described by Oyaizu [21] and reducing power was measured on a spectrophotometer at 700 nm and was obtained by the given formula: % Reduction � absorbance of the sample × 100 absorbance of the control − 1 .
2.12. Statistical Analysis. Te tests were carried out in triplicates. Te data are presented as means standard deviations. Duncan's multiple range test was performed to compare the results of utilizing commercial statistical software to an analysis of variance with a 5% signifcance level (SPSS, Inc, Chicago, IL, USA).

Optimization of Time and Temperature by Response
Surface Methodology. Te impact of time and temperature combination on antioxidant properties and overall acceptability of the product were measured using RSM, and the central composite design was used. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out to assess the data for each response, and multiple linear regressions were used to estimate the coefcients. Based on lack of ft, a nonsignifcant and IIorder regression equation was built for the responses (antioxidant and sensory properties) as a function of independent coded parameters. Te regression constant for sensory evaluation, % DPPH inhabition, and total phenolic content by RSM was observed to be 0.94, 0.81, and 0.90, respectively.

Efect of Time and Temperature on Sensory Evaluation.
Sensory evaluation is a scientifc way of eliciting, analysing, measuring, and interpreting product responses through the senses of smell, sight, hearing, and touch. Te quadratic model equation for sensory score is given in the following equation: It is evident from Figure 1 that the acceptability of the product was afected considerably (p ≤ 0.05) by time and temperature combination. On the basis of sensory evaluation, as there is an increase in the overall acceptability of the product quadratically with an increased time and temperature combination upon roasting. It is observed that there is an increase in the overall acceptability of the product initially with an increased time and temperature combination of sand roasting whereas further decrease in the product acceptability was observed which may be due to the increased time and temperature of the product, causing burning efects in the quality of product during processing.

Efect of Time and Temperature on % DPPH Inhibition.
Te % DPPH inhibition of product was found in the range from 17.74 to 7.24%. Te quadratic model for % DPPH inhibition is Te response surface plots depicted in Figure 1 shows the impact of variable process on % DPPH inhibition wherein a reduction in % DPPH with increased time and temperature of the sand roasted four was observed. Te % DPPH inhibition considerably (p < 0.05) decreased and the lower value 7.24% was noticed for roasted samples at 228°C for 10 m (H 10 ). A higher % DPPH inhibition was noticed for control sample 17.74% Intermediate time and temperature shows a highest activity of DPPH with respect to other combination and is supported by Zakrzewski et al. [22] for roasting of buckwheat.

Efect of Time and Temperature on Total Phenolic
Content. Te TPC of the product was observed in the range from 11.58 to 5.19 mgGAE/g. Te quadratic model for total phenolic content is It is evident from Figure 1 that the TPC of the sand roasted four is reduced by the increasing time and temperature of sand roasting. Te RSM plots depicted in Figure 1 showed the impact of process variables on the content of phenols. Te value of roasted samples at 228°C is 5.19% of total phenolics exhibit a continuous decline by increasing the time of roasting process. Similar fndings were observed for roasted oats wherein a decrease in TPC was seen by Gujral et al. [23]. Heat-induced extractable phenolics are responsible for the rise in TPC at low roasting temperatures (180°C). Similar results were supported by Gallegos-Infante et al. [24] for roasted barley. Table 2 shows the sensory analysis of selected sand roasted sattu samples and is observed with increasing time and temperature combinations; sand roasting had a signifcant (p ≤ 0.05) impact on favour, mouth feel, appearance, aftertaste, and overall acceptability. Te sensory evaluation of sand roasted samples at 171°C for 10 min, 180°C for 5 min, 200°C for 3 min, and 220°C for 5 min was observed to be under cooked. Similarly, it was revealed that the samples sand roasted at 220°C for 15 min and 200°C for 17 min were overcooked (burnt) during processing. All the under cooked and burnt samples were poor in organoleptic properties and hence were discarded, and no further analysis was performed for them. Te sensory evaluation carried out for sattu samples roasted at 180°C for 15 min (B15) showed high acceptability followed by the samples roasted at 200°C for 10 min (I10) and 228°C for 10 min (H10). All of the investigated parameters received a good score from semitrained panelists (score >6), indicating that the roasted samples will be well received. Te semitrained panelists gave the highest sensory scores and overall acceptance (9.06) to sattu roasted at 180°C for 15 minutes (B 15 ).  Table 3, sand roasting with increased time and temperature combination results in a signifcant (p ≤ 0.05) increased in surface area from 188.68 to 255.47 (mm 2 ). Te increase in surface area is also supported by Raigar et al. [25] for roasted soyabean four. Higher surface area helps to faster moisture removal and increased grain volume [18].

Physical
Te dimension of food grains determines sphericity. Time and temperature combination had a signifcant (p ≤ 0.05) impact on geometric mean diameter of chickpea grain during sand roasting. Geometric mean diameter of all sand roasted samples varying from 6.84 to 10.38 mm which was higher than control sample (8.94 mm). Te diference in grain length played a signifcant role in this discrepancy [26].
Te increased geometric mean diameter in sand roasting time and temperature combination were also supported by Mirdula et al. [27] for soyabean. Te increase in geometrical mean diameter contributes in increasing sphericity of grain. Te sand roasting with increase in time and temperature combination exhibits a continuous increase in the sphericity of grain samples (73.09-74.84) than control sample (72.76). Te expansion of roasted grain widths and thickness, rather than its length, caused the increase in sphericity [26]. Similar fndings were also supported by Isıklı et al. [9] for roasted Zerun wheat.
Te densities of powders have an impact on their transportation, packaging, and marketing. As a result, this property can be used to calculate the volume and weight of material needed to fll a beaker [28]. Te bulk density   (Table 3). Te true density of grains also signifcantly (p ≤ 0.05) decreases upon sand roasting from 1205.10 to 998.36 (kg/m 3 ) as compared to control samples (1253 kg/m 3 ). Te creation of void spaces in the cellular matrix, which allows the starchy endosperm to expand, could explain the signifcant decrease in densities [26]. Furthermore, breaking down complicated molecules into their constituent parts may result in a less bulky structure and lower densities [27]. Te decrease in true density and bulk density is also supported by Mariotti et al. [29] for pufng of brown rice. Te gaps in the solid particles of a substance are measured by porosity. Void spaces can be added with diferent variety of fuids such as gas and water [14]. Porosity signifcantly increased from 38.51 to 69.34%. Te control sample had less porosity value of 38.51% while the roasted samples had 58.86% roasted at 180°C B 10, 63.58% 200°C roasted at I 10 , and 69.34% roasted at 228°C H 10 , respectively. Similar trend of results was also observed by Sharma and Gujral [4] for sand roasting of barley.
Te angle of repose for roasted grains was signifcantly (p ≤ 0.05) more than control sample (22.33°). Te increased temperature and time in roasting results in increased in the angle of repose from 22.33°-24.98°. On plywood and glass, the coefcient of friction of control and roasted grain was measured. During the sand roasting process, the coefcient of friction decreases as time and temperature combinations increase as a result, the coefcient of friction for glass and plywood surfaces is constantly decreasing (Table 3). Te results revealed that the rough surface, such as plywood (0.52), has a greater coefcient of friction than a smooth surface, such as glass (0.42). Te drop in coefcient of friction and rise in angle of repose were caused due to the reduction in the content of moisture and an increase in grain size, which reduces grain surface friction and enhances grain to grain interaction. Te increasing and decreasing in the angle of repose and coefcient of friction was also supported by Isıklı et al. [9] for roasted wheat. Table 4 and Figure 2 represent the color characteristics of chickpea four. Color is a signifcant quality indicator that is linked to food acceptability, marketability and wholesomeness [30]. Te value of L * for sand roasted sample signifcantly (p ≤ 0.05) decreases from 83.46 to 79.50 as compared to controlled sample (87.52). Drop in L * value may be due to lower moisture content, as well as development of glazed look after grinding the grains [31].

Color Properties.
From the results, it was observed that the controlled chickpea four had lowest a * value 1.72 in comparison to the roasted chickpea four had highest a * value 5.60 roasted at 228°C (H 10 ). Similarly, b * value also follows same condition as shown in Table 4. Te synthesis of brown pigments in the mallard reaction and caramelization may be responsible for the increasing "a" and b * values. Similar results for L * , a * , and b * were supported by Wani et al. [16] for pan roasted arrowhead.

Proximate Composition.
Te nutritional composition of sand roasting can be assessed by analysing the proximate composition of chickpea four. Table 5 demonstrates a considerable drop in moisture content as the time and temperature of sand roasting four is increased. In the current study, it was revealed that the moisture content of control sample (7.93%) was more than the samples roasted at 180°C, 200°C, and 228°C had 6.03%, 4.16%, and 3.47%, respectively. However, studies have showed the lowest Te results are presented as mean ± SD, n � 3. Values in a column with distinct superscripts difer signifcantly (p ≤ 0.05). moisture content in food product is favorable feature as it reduces the microbial activity and also improves product quality and shelf durability. It was observed that there is a decrease in the content of ash with an increased time and temperature of sand roasting, controlled four had 3.66% ash content which was decreased to 2.81% during roasting at 228°C for 10 mins (H 10 ). Raigar et al. [25] demonstrated that the increase in carbohydrate content may be ofset by a decrease in the content of ash in the roasting process. Te control four has fat content (5.93%) which was more than the roasted samples as presented in Table 5 [32]. Similar trend of fndings was also supported by Pandey and Awesthi [33] for fenugreek seed. Te crude fbre content of a food sample is the amount of indigestible carbohydrates present [34]. It was noticed that the crude   Journal of Food Quality 7 fbre content of the roasted sample (3.93%) when roasted at 228°C was higher than that of the controlled sample (2.98%). Te concentration of components after roasting, which is induced by moisture loss, results in an increase in fbre content in roasted four [35]. Te total carbohydrate content of chickpea four was also measured, and it was observed that as the temperature of sand roasting rises, the carbohydrate content rises signifcantly (p ≤ 0.05) from 59.53% to 63.24%. Te gelatinization of starch could be responsible for the increase in total carbohydrate content during wheat sand roasting, resulting in an increase in overall carbohydrate content [36]. Similar trend of results was supported by Wani et al. [37] in chest nut. In the current study, it was revealed that the control samples had the maximum protein content value of 26.65%, which was reduced insignifcantly (p ≤ 0.05) by raising the sand temperature.

Functional Properties.
Functional properties including WAC, OAC, WAI, and WSI respectively are shown in Table 6. WAC signifcantly (p ≤ 0.05) increases from 2.78-4.12 g/g upon sand roasting. Lowest water absorption capacity 0.87 g/g was revealed for control four while maximum water absorption capacity 4.12 g/g was found for roasted sample at 228°C for 10 mins (H 10 ). Gelatinization facilitates the increasing capacity of water absorption that may be caused by damage to starch molecules during roasting [37]. Due to the porosity nature of seeds, water penetrates the seeds and is kept inside through capillary action, resulting in an increase in water absorption capacity [4]. Similar fndings are also reported by Jogihalli et al. [18]. OAC of roasted sample signifcantly increased from 2.55-3.14 g/g with an increasing sand temperature, while the lowest OAC was observed in controlled sample (1.32 g/g). Roasting causes protein dissociation and increases polar and nonpolar binding sites, resulting in an increase in OAC. It is afected by the solubilization and dissociation of proteins into subunits, as well as the increase or decrease in polar and nonpolar binding sites [38]. Similar trend of increase was found for the oil absorption capacity of roasted sweet chest nut [37]. WAI increases signifcantly (p ≤ 0.05) during sand roasting with diferent time and temperature combination. Te water absorption index of unroasted sample was observed to be 2.05 g/g while the roasted samples had 2.97 g/g roasted at 180°C (B 15 ), 3.06 g/g roasted at 200°C (I 10 ), and 3.57 g/g roasted at 228°C (H 10 ), respectively. However, water solubility index showed nonsignifcant decrease by roasting. Te accessibility of hydrophilic groups and the propensity of macromolecules to form gel after roasting may increase in water absorption index. Te development of insoluble substance during roasting could explain the decrease in water solubility index [39]. Te degree of starch conversion is also determined using the water-soluble index. It also shows how much soluble polysaccharides have been freed from starch granules after roasting. Te increase and decrease in WAI and WSI was also supported by Hatamian et al. [40] and Jogihalli et al. [18] for roasted chia seed four and sand roasted chickpea four, respectively.
Sand roasting of chickpea grains reduces the foaming capacity signifcantly from 28.78 to 9.10% as shown in Table 6. Stability of foam was highest (21.48%) in control sample while the roasted sample (0.15%). Te foaming capacity and stability may be afected by a variety of parameters, includes protein type, temperature, and manufacturing process. Proteins are often responsible for foaming properties, and their solubility is reduced as a result of heating, which could explain why roasted samples have a lesser foaming ability [41]. Te foam stability was severely reduced to 0%, implying that heat caused protein denaturation, which results in the loss of foams [42]. Similar trend of results were supported by Wani et al. [16] for arrow head four.

Antinutritional Properties of Sand Roasted Sattu.
Among various antinutritional factors is presented in Table 7. Sand roasting of chickpea four shows highest decrease in the content of tannins (4.07 mg/g) at 228°C as compared to the controlled sample having tannins content of 6.65 mg/g. Te heat labile and water-soluble properties of tannins may be responsible for the decline [43]. Te decline in tannins content was also supported by Khattab and Arntfeld [44] for roasting of legumes. Phytate is an essential component of legumes that has the ability to chelate divalent cationic minerals such as calcium, magnesium, and zinc. Tese chelates render the element nutritionally inaccessible, resulting in dietary insufciency and also prevent the action of enzymes. It was revealed that the phytic acid of sattu signifcantly (p ≤ 0.05) reduced from 86.78 mg/100 g to 84.02 mg/100 g with an increasing temperature of sand roasting. Similar fndings were observed of reduced phytic acid levels supported by Adegunwa et al. [45] for thermal processing of beniseed four. Te lowering of phytic acid content is aided by the formation of insoluble complexes between phytate-protein and phytate-protein-mineral complexes. Process of roasting can be an efcient technique to minimise phytic acid while also enhancing nutritional bioavailability in particular cereal grains [46]. Te poorer water extractability of phytates due to heating procedures may account for the reduced phytic acid in sand roasted four [47]. Table 8. Te mallard products are formed during roasting which contributes to antioxidant activity. Control sample had 11.58 (mgGAE/g), while the TPC of four samples roasted at 180°C for 15 mins (B 15 ) increases slightly 8.94 (mgGAE/g). In case of roasted samples at 200 and 228°C, TPC value decreased steadily by increased time and temperature of sand roasting. Heat-induced extractable phenolics are responsible for the rise in TPC at lower roasting temperatures [18]. Similar trend of results are also supported by Wani et al. [16] for arrowhead. However, thermal degradation and oxidation of phenolic substances occurs at higher temperature and longer roasting time [48]. Tis process also involves polymerization and the formation of insoluble molecular weight molecules like melanoidins and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons have negative impact on TPC. Te % DPPH of chickpea roasted four signifcantly (p ≤ 0.05) reduced to 7.24%, while the controlled chickpea four (17.74%). Te drop-in antioxidant activity is owing to a fall in phenolic content, which is not balanced by mallard reaction products [49]. Te compound of mallard includes (5-hydroxymethyl1-2-furaldehyde) are also generated during process of roasting and also contributes to antioxidant characteristics, according to research [4]. It was observed that the control and roasted four had reducing power are in the range of 24.42%-27.0.33%, 25.33%-38.03%, and 28.89-44.42% for samples roasted at 180°C, 220°C, and 228°C, respectively. Melanoidins generated during roasting may cause a reduction in the roasted samples' potency. Products which are formed during mallard reaction in the reducing power which are formed during sand roasting, was improved [50]. Te increasing % of reducing power was also supported by Baba et al. [51] for roasted barley four.

Termal Property.
Termal property of samples is presented in Table 9. T o (onset temperature) signifcantly (p ≤ 0.05) decreases from 64.51 to 55.49°C between control and roasted four. Also, the T c (conclusion temperature) and (T p ) peak temperature decreases (70.86− 64.55°C, 67.99− 58.54°C) as we increase the temperature of sand. Gelatinization range of roasted chickpea four increases from 5.48°C to 9.05°C, respectively. Lower transition temperatures are caused by the formation of tiny polysaccharides (sugars), degradation of crystalline formation that are relatively weak, and reduction in amylopectin concentration, all of which contribute to a lower range of gelatinization temperatures. Sand roasting results in decreased in enthalpy (ΔH) ranges from 6.11 to 2.86 (J/g). Te drop in enthalpy (H) is related to the loss in the content of amylopectin during roasting. Similar trend of results were also supported by Sharma and Gujral [4] for roasted barley. (FTIR). From 400 to 4000 cm − 1 , FTIR spectra of native and treated chickpea sattu were examined. Te spectral patterns of control and roasted sattu shows similarity, indicating that no additional components were formed (Figure 3). On the basis of data collected, the total spectrum can be classifed into eight regions: 3600− 3200, 2900− 2800, 2400− 2100, 1700− 1400, 1400− 1200, 1200− 1000, 1000− 800, and 800− 600 cm − 1 . Due to the oxidation reaction of four, the dale observed at 3600− 3200 cm − 1 in all treated samples showed a reduction in degree of unsaturation. Te peak area 3176.46 and Te results are presented as mean ± SD, n � 3. Values in a row with distinct superscripts difer signifcantly (p ≤ 0.05). Te results are presented as mean ± SD, n � 3. Journal of Food Quality 9

Fourier Transfer Infrared Spectroscopy
2912.27 cm − 1 observed in this study defnes the stretching vibration of the C-Hcis-olefnic group. Te lipid, olefnic, and alkene makeup of four and grains are altered during the roasting process [18]. A dale may be seen in the 2900− 2800 cm − 1 region, while split peaks can be seen in the 2400− 2100 cm − 1 region, indicating changes in aliphatic groups and structures of amines. Time and temperature conditions, on the other hand, can afect absorption units, dale depth, and peak sharpness. Joghilli et al. [18] found that roasting had a signifcant efect on anhydrides, amides, amino acids, lactones, aldehydes, and esters groups in cofee. Changes in these compounds on absorption bands 1700− 1400 cm − 1 and 1400− 1200 cm − 1 occurr in the current investigation as well.
Increasing the degree of roasting of almond nuts from light to medium improved the percent transmittance at 1000-1200 cm − 1 due to ester compounds [52]. Changes associated with N-O pyridine, esters, ethers, t-butyl groups, and lactones can be seen in the designated range 1400− 1200 cm − 1 . When roasted four of chickpea was compare to control four, the spectral region of FTIR 1200− 1000 cm − 1 shows diferent valleys and peaks with variable absorbance, indicating the C-C and C-O stretching modes, as well as C-O-H bending modes, are the most important absorption bands related to structural changes in starch. Techniques of cooking includes parboiling, in which food is exposed to higher temperatures, transform starch molecule to their retrograde and ruptured forms, disrupting chemical connections while also lowering vibrational activity [48]. In the presence of dicarbonyl chemicals or lipid peroxidation products, oxidative decarboxylation of parent amino acids results in the production of conjugated amines, the number of biogenic amines increases during roasting (formed because of high temperature). Wani et al. [16] found that the production of alkene groups and melanoidins increased absorbance in roasted wheat samples throughout a broad range of 1000− 650 cm − 1 . Treaments have been defned of this investigation; higher peak intensity was seen in the 1000− 800 cm − 1 area, which is normally attributed to R-NH2 of primary amines. Oracz and Nebesny [53], observed the impact of temperature and duration upon roasting on amines. In comparison to native four, roasted samples showed peaks in the spectrum band 800− 600 cm − 1 , which is related with the C-Hmeta-disub benzene aromatic bond. Te alteration and synthesis of aromatic chemicals as a result of the roasting process is one of the sources of the observed variance. In addition, the strength of IR absorption in samples varied depending on time and temperature treatments. Wani et al. [16] also documented variations in this region, with a rise in single bond OH groups, changes in amylopectin starch component, and sample gelatinization in microwave roasted samples, implying a rise in single bond  OH groups, changes in amylopectin starch component, and sample gelatinization.

Conclusion
Te physical, functional, thermal, and spectral characteristics of chickpea grains were signifcantly afected by roasting. After roasting of grains, the color changes from light yellow to light brown. It was observed that signifcant increment was observed in the water absorption capacity of roasted samples; however, water solubility index and properties of foam shows signifcant decrease in roasting. High activity of DPPH was observed at intermediate time-temperature combination. Te roasted samples were observed to be free from the antinutritional factors thereby improving gastrointestinal functions and metabolic performance. As roasting enhances the organoleptic characteristics without compromising the nutritional value, it may extend the shelf stability of the product. As a result, the current study identifed signifcant parameters that could aid in the design and improvement of chickpea grain handling and processing equipment.

Data Availability
Te data used to support the study are available from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest
Te authors declare that they have no conficts of interest.