The training regimens of modern-day athletes have evolved from the sole emphasis on a single fitness component (e.g., endurance athlete or resistance/strength athlete) to an integrative, multimode approach encompassing all four of the major fitness components: resistance (R), interval sprints (I), stretching (S), and endurance (E) training. Athletes rarely, if ever, focus their training on only one mode of exercise but instead routinely engage in a multimode training program. In addition, timed-daily protein (P) intake has become a hallmark for all athletes. Recent studies, including from our laboratory, have validated the effectiveness of this multimode paradigm (RISE) and protein-feeding regimen, which we have collectively termed PRISE. Unfortunately, sports nutrition recommendations and guidelines have lagged behind the PRISE integrative nutrition and training model and therefore limit an athletes’ ability to succeed. Thus, it is the purpose of this review to provide a clearly defined roadmap linking specific performance enhancing diets (PEDs) with each PRISE component to facilitate optimal nourishment and ultimately optimal athletic performance.
At every level of athletic competition, the drive to succeed is a natural competitive instinct that requires an appropriate amount, type, and timing of exercise training and nutrient intake. This balance is important because the difference between winning and losing largely depends on the training and nutritional status of the athlete. Thus, in order for any athlete to be successful, proper training and nourishment must be a daily priority.
Specific training regimens for elite athletes are often based on the same science used to formulate exercise and nutrition recommendations for the general public. For example, governing organizations in sports medicine (American College of Sports Medicine, ACSM) and healthcare (American Heart Association, AHA; Centers for Disease Control, CDC; World Health Organization, WHO) generally promote an exercise regimen that includes a combination of (i) cardiorespiratory (aerobic) (150 minutes/week of 30–60 minutes moderate-intensity 5 days/week or 20–60 minutes vigorous-intensity exercise 3 days/week); (ii) resistance (major muscle groups 2-3 days/week of 2–4 sets and 8–20 repetitions); (iii) flexibility (stretches held for 10–30 seconds, repeated 2–4 times 2-3 days/week); and (iv) neuromotor/functional exercise (balance, agility, coordination 20–30 minutes/day 2-3 days/week).
While the intent of these exercise recommendations is noble, the majority of the US population (>60%) falls short in achieving them [
Interestingly, the contemporary athlete (competitive and noncompetitive) no longer adheres to the traditional, narrowly defined training regimen focused on only one mode of exercise (e.g., only endurance or only resistance) but instead adheres to a multimode, integrative training model. Indeed, the challenge for most athletes today is finding the balance (time and energy) to incorporate all of the fitness components (resistance, anaerobic, aerobic, and flexibility training) into their regular training regimen, recognizing the vital importance each one contributes to their overall success. Thus, herein we propose a scientifically validated model that embraces a holistic and integrative model of exercise training that all athletes are encouraged to follow, termed “PRISE” (Table
PRISE protocol.
Exercise | Type | Work | RPE | Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday | |
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PRISE | Protein-pacing (P) | P, A | — | — | 20 grams × 5 servings | 20 grams × 5 servings | 20 grams × 5 servings | 20 grams × 5 servings | 20 grams × 5 servings |
Resistance (R) | WB | 2 sets/exercise |
7–9 | WB | — | REST | — | — | |
Intervals (I) | C | 5–7 sets |
10/3 | — | X | — | — | ||
Stretching (S) | S | ≤60 min | 7–9 | — | — | WB | — | ||
Endurance (E) | C | ≥60 min | 6 | — | — | — | X |
Note: P: plant-based; A: animal-based; RPE: rating of perceived effort; RT: resistance training; Sprint: sprint interval training; C: choice of exercise modality; WB: whole body exercise; S: stretching exercise; X: exercise day. Exercise modalities available for C include walking, jogging, running, cycling, swimming, elliptical, rowing, rollerblading, and cross-country skiing.
Resistance exercise (R).
Circle the exercises performed from each category | Reps/time | Resistance | ||
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Dynamic warm-up | Perform prior to each workout (5–10 minutes): | |||
(1) Pendulum swings (side-to-side) | (7) Over-under the fence | |||
(2) Pendulum swings (front-to-back) | (8) Hip opening/closing | |||
(3) High knee (chest) | (9) High knees | |||
(4) High knee (external rotation) | (10) Butt kicks | |||
(5) Side shuffle | (11) Lunge with twist | |||
(6) Carioca | (12) Arm windmills | |||
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Footwork and agility | Perform using agility ladder (10 minutes): | |||
(1) Forward, double-step | (1) Side shuffle | |||
(2) Sideways double-step | (2) Figure 8’s | |||
(3) Side-step, double in/out | (3) Kangaroo hops 2/1 foot | |||
(4) Side shuffle, two-in/out | (4) Kangaroo hops, sideways | |||
(5) Two leg hops | (5) T-drill | |||
(6) One leg hops | (6) Jump rope | |||
(7) Two leg hops, in/out | ||||
(8) One leg hops, in/out | ||||
(9) One leg hops, sideways | ||||
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Resistance and power exercises | Perform each below (10 minutes): | Perform each below (10 minutes): | ||
(1) Side-steps toes in/out, ankles/knees | (1) Back rows/flys | |||
-Side-steps with bands and med ball | (2) Pull-ups | |||
(2) Forward/backward walk with bands | (3) Chest press/fly | |||
(3) Squats | (4) Pushups (choose one): | |||
(4) Lunges with tubing (with med ball) | (i) Side walking | |||
(5) Lateral lunges (with med ball) | (ii) Knees/toes w/physioball | |||
Choose 2 below: | (iii) Down dog | |||
(6) Front step-ups | (iv) Side to side (ball) | |||
(7) Squat thrusts, med ball throws | (v) Heart-to-heart | |||
(8) Jump squats | (vi) Hi/low | |||
(9) Mountain climbers | (5) Front/lateral raises | |||
(10) Squat-plank-jump squats | (6) Biceps curls | |||
(11) Lateral step-ups | (7) Shoulder press | |||
(8) Hyperextensions | ||||
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Core Exercises | Perform 4 below (10 minutes): | Perform 4 below (5 minutes): | ||
(1) Plank knees elbows/hands | (1) Knees to chest | |||
(2) Plank toes elbows/hands | (2) Hyperextension on ball | |||
(3) Plank one leg elbows | (3) Reverse planks | |||
(4) Plank one leg hands on ball | (4) Ab hollow | |||
(5) Side planks foot-elbow/twist | (5) Walking sit-ups | |||
(6) Side planks hand stars | (6) Crunch bent knee | |||
(7) Airplanes | (7) Tug-of-war | |||
(8) Supermans/womans | (8) Side touch/scissors/toe | |||
(9) Crunches on ball | ||||
(10) Plank with ball on knees/toes |
Resistance exercises utilize medicine balls, physioballs, rubber tubes and bands which are incorporated into a dynamic warm-up, footwork and agility drills, resistance and power movements, and core exercises, bodyweight exercises (e.g., lunges, squats, and jumping rope). A 5 minute cool down follows the R routine with gentle stretching. Total R exercise time is 60 minutes.
Stretching exercise (S).
Circle the exercises performed from each category | Breaths/time | |
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Sun salutations | (1) Mountain pose ( |
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(2) Standing forward bend ( |
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(3) Plank pose ( |
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(4) Four-limbed staff pose ( |
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(5) Cobra pose ( |
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(6) Upward facing dog pose ( |
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(7) Downward facing dog pose ( |
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(8) Child’s pose/rest pose ( |
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Standing poses | (1) Neck stretching | |
(2) Side bending | ||
(3) Lunge pose ( |
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(4) Warrior I pose ( |
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(5) Warrior II pose ( |
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(6) Triangle pose ( |
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(7) Extended side angle pose ( |
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(8) Goddess pose ( |
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(9) Chair pose ( |
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(10) Revolved chair pose ( |
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(11) Squat pose ( |
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(12) Standing wide-legged forward bend pose ( |
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Balance in motion poses | (1) Tree pose ( |
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(2) Warrior III ( |
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(3) Lord of the dance pose ( |
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(4) Standing one-legged balance | ||
(5) Eagle pose (Garudasana) | ||
(6) Boat pose ( |
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(7) Bicycle pose | ||
(8) Bow pose ( |
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(9) Candlestick pose | ||
(10) Camel pose ( |
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(11) Pigeon pose ( |
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Floor poses | (1) Seated cross-legged pose ( |
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(2) Staff pose ( |
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(3) Seated forward bend ( |
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(4) Head to knee pose ( |
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(5) Wide seated forward bend pose ( |
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(6) Table top pose and cat/cow | ||
(7) Bridge pose ( |
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(9) Butterfly pose ( |
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(10) Happy baby pose ( |
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(11) Half twist pose ( |
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(12) Head to knee pose ( |
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(13) Front split pose ( |
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(14) Frog pose ( |
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(15) Spinal twist pose ( |
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(16) Corpse pose ( |
S is based primarily on traditional yoga “asanas,” or poses, with modern elements of Pilates for a total body stretching, flexibility, and strengthening workout. All (S) routines include basic sun salutations, standing poses, balance in motion, a floor core strengthening portion, and a final resting relaxation phase. As participants progress they are instructed to increase the intensity in which they perform the poses so the level of intensity ranges from 7 to 9 on the intensity scale.
Interval exercise (I). Choose an exercise (walking, jogging, running, cycling, swimming, elliptical, snowshoeing, cross-country skiing, jumping rope, rollerblading, rowing, etc.) and one of two options. Option 1: perform 5–7 “all-out” sprint Intervals for 30-seconds at intensity level 10 followed by a 4 minute recovery at intensity Level 2; or Option 2: perform 8–12 sprint “almost all-out” intervals for 60 seconds at intensity level 9 followed by a 2-minute recovery at intensity Level 2. At the beginning and end of each interval session perform a 5-minute dynamic warm-up and gentle stretching cool down, respectively, so that each session is completed within 30–40 minutes.
Endurance exercise (E). Perform endurance (E) exercise at an intensity level of 6 for 60 minutes or longer using any form of exercise (walking, jogging, running, cycling, swimming, hiking, cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, rollerblading, rowing, etc.). Ideally, perform E outside in nature and in the morning. At the beginning and end of each E session perform a 5-minute dynamic warm-up and a cool-down gentle stretch, respectively.
Perhaps equally, if not more, important for athletic performance is proper nourishment, including the type, timing, and amount of specific food and dietary supplement sources. Currently, there is disconnect between sports nutrition guidelines and the progressive multicomponent exercise training regimen (PRISE) that many athletes follow. As an example, most endurance athletes (marathoners, triathletes, etc.) are encouraged to follow a consistent diet of relatively high carbohydrate intake (60–70% of total kcals). However, most endurance athletes adhere to a PRISE training schedule, including resistance (R), interval (I), and stretching (S) training, and therefore need to adapt their nourishment to match this integrative training paradigm in order to achieve success and the same applies to the sprint-type athlete.
It is clear that our current exercise training and nutrition practices need to be readjusted to meet the needs of the evolving athlete. Thus, the major objective of the current sports nutrition review is to establish a clear rationale and link between a scientifically proven integrative model of exercise training (PRISE) performed four days per week and a matching sports performance enhancing diet (PED), to maximize athletic performance. We advocate following the PRISE protocol and linking the prescribed PED to each component for that day to maximize the physiological, biochemical, and hormonal responses. The advantage of incorporating these nutritional strategies on a temporal basis allows the body to avoid repeated long-term exposure and thus potential for adverse side effects, downregulation (i.e., decreased cellular sensitivity), and tolerance to occur. In addition, athletes should follow a balanced, protein-rich diet that incorporates 20–30 grams of high-quality protein evenly spaced throughout the day (~every 3 hours), including nonexercising days.
Protein is arguably the most crucial nutrient for general health and athletic performance because of its role in protein synthesis, energy metabolism, body composition (optimal lean muscle mass and fat mass), immune support, and satiation. Further, research supports timed-daily protein feedings throughout the day to maximize protein synthesis and thus lean muscle mass accretion [
Meal frequency (number of meals eaten) is another important factor for optimization of body composition and athletic performance. Several studies have suggested meal frequency is inversely related to body weight [
Perhaps most interesting was the finding that postprandial thermogenesis during both weight maintenance and loss was significantly elevated (67–100%) in HP6 compared to the 3 meals per day groups [
Resistance training (R) is a vital component of every athlete’s training regimen given its role in athletic performance. Thus, identifying nutritional strategies that enhance muscle strength, power, and function are essential (Table
Summary of research supporting the PRISE Protocol of performance enhancing diets for athletic performance.
Author group | Nutrient | Number of participants | Duration (days) | Design | Dose | Performance improvements reported |
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Resistance | ||||||
Antonio and Ciccone, 2013 [ |
Creatine | 19 | 28 | Randomized | 5 g·d−1 | (i) Increased lean body mass |
Gouttebarge et al. 2012 [ |
Creatine | 16 | 5 | Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled | 20 g·d−1 | (i) 2.2% increase in body mass |
Souza-Junior et al. 2011 [ |
Creatine | 22 | 56 | Randomized | 20 g·d−1 for 7 days |
(i) Increased cross sectional area of thigh and arm muscle |
Ispoglou et al. 2011 [ |
Leucine | 26 | 84 | Double-blind, placebo-controlled | 4 g·d−1 | (i) Increased 5RM for 5 of 8 resistance exercises |
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Intervals | ||||||
de Salles Painelli et al. 2014 [ |
Beta-alanine | 40 |
4 wks | Double-blind | 6.4 g·d−1 | (i) Increased total work done |
Ducker et al. 2013 [ |
Beta-alanine | 18 | 28 | Randomized, placebo-controlled | 80 mg·kg−1 BM·d−1 | (i) Improved 800 m track performance |
Van Thienen et al. 2009 [ |
Beta-alanine | 17 | 8 wks | Double-blind | 2 g·d−1 (days 1–14), then 3 g·d−1 (days 15–27), then 4 g·d−1 (days 28–56) | (i) Increased sprint performance following a 110 min cycling race |
Abian-Vicen et al. 2014 [ |
Caffeine | 16 | — | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | 3 mg·kg−1 |
(i) Increased single and repeated jump height |
Del Coso et al. 2014 [ |
Caffeine | 15 | — | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | 3 mg·kg−1 |
(i) Increased single and repeated jump height |
Del Coso et al. 2013 [ |
Caffeine | 16 | — | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | 3 mg·kg−1 |
(i) Increased power output during repeated jumps |
Del Coso et al. 2013 [ |
Caffeine | 26 | — | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | 3 mg·kg−1 |
(i) Increased number of sprints and distance covered (total and at running speed above 20 km·h−1) during a simulated rugby match |
Duncan et al. 2014 [ |
Caffeine | 10 | — | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | 6 mg·kg−1 | (i) Increased torque production during isokinetic knee extension at 30, 150, and 300°·s−1. |
Lane et al. 2013 [ |
Caffeine | 12 | — | 3 mg·kg−1 | (i) 2.8% increase in mean power output during HIIT with normal glycogen levels | |
Lara et al. 2014 [ |
Caffeine | 18 | — | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | 3 mg·kg−1 |
(i) Increased jump height |
Silva-Cavalcante et al. 2013 [ |
Caffeine | 7 | — | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | 5 mg·kg−1 | (i) 4.1% reduction in time to complete 4 km cycling time trial with low glycogen levels |
Camic et al. 2014 [ |
Creatine (polyethylene glycosylated) | 77 | 28 | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | 1.25 g·d−1 |
(i) Increase in vertical jump height |
Oliver et al. 2013 [ |
Creatine | 13 | 6 | No control group | 20 g·d−1 |
(i) Increased power at lactate threshold ( |
Zuniga et al. 2012 [ |
Creatine | 22 | 7 | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | 20 g·d−1 | (i) Increased mean power during two Wingate tests separated by 7 minutes |
Ducker et al. 2013 [ |
Sodium bicarbonate | 24 | — | Randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled | 0.3 g·kg−1 | (i) Reduced total, mean, and best times during repeated maximal running sprints |
Mero et al. 2013 [ |
Sodium bicarbonate | 13 | — | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | 0.3 g·kg−1 | (i) Reduced time to complete second of 2 maximal 100 m freestyle swims separated by 12 minutes |
Mueller et al. 2013 [ |
Sodium bicarbonate | 8 | 5 | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | 0.3 g·kg−1 | (i) 23.5% increase in time to exhaustion during cycling at critical power |
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Stretching | ||||||
Black et al. 2010 [ |
Ginger | 25 | — | Double-blind, crossover study | 2 g of raw |
(i) Decreased perception of pain following eccentric exercise |
Chuengsamarn et al. 2014 [ |
Curcumin | 213 |
6 months | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | 250 mg per capsule 6 capsules per day | (i) Decreased pulse wave velocity |
Takahashi et al. 2014 [ |
Curcumin | 10 | — | Double-blind, placebo-controlled, counterbalanced crossover | 90 mg-single and placebo |
(i) Decreased reactive oxygen metabolites in both groups versus placebo |
Bloomer et al. 2009 [ |
Omega-3 |
14 | 6 wks | Random order double-blind crossover design study | EPA : DHA 2,224 : 2,208 mg·d−1, | (i) Decreased resting levels of inflammatory biomarkers (C-reactive protein and TNF- |
Tartibian et al. 2009 [ |
Omega-3 |
27 |
32 | Randomized, double-blinded, repeated measures | 324 : 216 mg·d−1, 30 days and 48 hrs during recovery | (i) Decreased perceived pain and ROM at 48 hours postexercise |
Jouris et al. 2011 [ |
Omega-3 |
11 | 7 | Repeated measures intervention | 2,000 : 1,000 mg·d−1 for 7 days | (i) Decreased perceived muscle soreness, pain, and swelling. |
Smith et al. 2011 [ |
Omega-3 |
16 | 8 wks | Randomized controlled study | EPA : DHA 1.86 : 1.50 g·d−1 | (i) Stimulating protein synthesis through activation of the mTOR-p70s6k signaling pathway in older adults |
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Endurance | ||||||
Bailey et al. 2009 [ |
Beet root juice | 8 | 6 | Double-blind, placebo- (PL-) controlled, crossover study | 0.5 liters of BRJ (5.5 mmol/day of |
(i) Single dose BRJ lowered VO2 during submaximal exercise of 60% maximal work rate |
Vanhatalo et al. 2010 [ |
Beet root juice | 8 | 15 | Balanced crossover | 0.5 liters BRJ (5.2 mmol/day |
(i) VO2 max, peak power output, and work rate associated with anaerobic threshold were higher than placebo and baseline after 15 days of BRJ |
Lansley et al. 2011 [ |
Beet root juice | 9 | 6 | Randomized, double-blind, crossover |
0.5 liters of BRJ (6.2 mmol/day of |
(i) Reduced the VO2 for constant-work-rate moderate and severe-intensity running by ~7% |
Lansley et al. 2011 [ |
Beet root juice | 9 | — | Randomized, crossover | 0.5 liter BRJ (6.2 mmol of |
(i) Reduced time to completion and significantly increased power output during the 4 km TT (2.8% and 5%, resp.; |
Kenjale et al. 2011 [ |
Beet root juice | 8 | — | Randomized, open-label, crossover study | 0.5 liters of BRJ (18.1 mmol/L |
(i) Increased exercise tolerance (walked 18% longer before claudication pain onset and experienced a 17% longer peak walking time) |
Murphy et al. 2012 [ |
Beet root juice | 11 | — | Double-blind placebo-controlled crossover | 200 g Beetroot with ≥500 mg |
(i) Nonsignificant improvement in running velocity |
Hodgson et al. 2013 [ |
Caffeine | 8 | — | Randomized, single-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | 5 mg·kg−1 | (i) 4.9% reduction in cycling time until completion of 70% of maximal work output |
Pitchford et al. 2014 [ |
Caffeine | 9 | — | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | 3 mg·kg−1 | (i) Reduced cycling time to complete work-based time trial in hot conditions ( |
Spence et al. 2013 [ |
Caffeine | 10 | — | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | 200 mg | (i) Reduction of cycling time during second half of 40 km time trial |
Stadheim et al. 2013 [ |
Caffeine | 10 | — | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | 6 mg·kg−1 | (i) 4% reduction in time to complete 8 km cross-country skiing double-poling time trial |
Stephens et al. 2008 [ |
LMW |
8 | — | 100 g LMS, HMS, or P | (i) Increased performance in LMS and HMS versus placebo | |
Roberts et al. 2011 [ |
HMS |
9 | — | Crossover, randomized, double-blind | 1 g/kg BM MS |
(i) Decreased glucose and insulin in HMS versus MAT |
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Body composition | ||||||
Ludy and Mattes 2011 [ |
Capsaicin | 25 | — | Randomized, crossover | 1 g RP after high-FAT diet |
(i) Increased EE, core body temperature, and fat oxidation (in oral form) |
Yoneshiro et al. 2012 [ |
Capsaicin | 18 | — | Single-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover | 9 mg capsinoids (capsules) with 199 mg of rapeseed oil and medium-chain triglycerides |
(i) Increased EE through activation of brown adipose tissue in humans |
Galgani and Ravussin 2010 [ |
Capsiate | 78 | 4 wks | Parallel-arm double blind, randomized | 3 mg·d−1 dihydrocapsiate (capsules) |
(i) Increased RMR when both groups 3 and 9 mg·d−1 were combined |
Josse et al. 2010 [ |
Capsiate | 12 | — | Randomized, crossover, double blind | 10 mg capsinoids (capsules) |
(i) Increased SNSa, energy expenditure, and fat oxidation |
Lee et al. 2010 [ |
Capsiate | 46 | 4 wks | Parallel-arm double blind, randomized | 3 mg·d−1 dihydrocapsiate (capsules) |
(i) Increased energy expenditure 9 mg·d−1 and 3 mg·d−1 versus placebo and 9 mg·d−1 versus 3 mg·d−1 |
Snitker et al. 2009 [ |
Capsiate | 80 | 12 wks | Parallel-arm double blind, randomized | 6 mg·d−1 capsinoids (capsules) |
(i) Decreased abdominal adiposity |
Inoue et al. 2007 [ |
Capsiate | 44 | 4 wks | Parallel-arm double blind, randomized | 3 mg·d−1 capsinoids (capsules) |
(i) Increased VO2 (10 mg, BMI ≥25 kg/m2) |
Stephens et al. 2013 [ |
Carnitine | 12 | 12 wks | Randomized, double-blind | 1.36 g L-carnitine + 80 g of CHO |
(i) Increased muscle carnitine by 20% |
Haub et al. 2010 [ |
Resistant starch | 11 | — | Single-blind randomized, crossover | 30 g RS4XL |
(i) Lower plasma glucose for RS4XL and RS2 than DEX, and for RS4XL than RS2 |
Al-Tamimi et al. 2010 [ |
Resistant starch | 13 | — | Randomized, crossover | 75 g GLU |
(i) Lower glucose 20–60 min and insulin 30–120 min in RS4XL versus PWB and GLU |
Shimotoyodome et al. 2011 [ |
Resistant starch | 10 | — | Randomized, crossover | 38 g RS4-HDP |
(i) Lower glucose and insulin, and GIP |
HMW: high molecular weight; LMW: low molecular weight; HMS: hydrothermally modified starch; MAT: maltodextrin.
Creatine, a component of phosphocreatine, is critical for rapid production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) [
Protons are consumed when ATP is resynthesized from phosphocreatine [
Creatine is known to increase intracellular fluid volume [
Other possible mechanisms include increased energy efficiency of muscle contraction resulting from a faster relaxation response [
Although the influence of creatine supplementation on lean body mass has not received much recent attention, several studies have further supported its benefit. In male professional soccer players, 5 days of creatine loading at 20 g·d−1 during typical training and competition led to increases in body mass and jumping power that did not occur with the placebo [
The branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), which include leucine, isoleucine, and valine, are essential nutrients involved in muscle protein synthesis and energy metabolism [
Protein synthesis is the most well-known and arguably the most important mechanism through which BCAAs enhance performance. Although all three of the BCAAs contribute to protein synthesis, leucine is particularly important. This is because leucine activates translation initiation factors and the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), which are influential in the regulation of protein synthesis [
Further supporting the importance of leucine, a recent crossover trial including 9 military personnel found that increasing the leucine content of a 10 g essential amino acid (EAA) dose from 1.87 to 3.5 g led to greater muscle protein synthesis and less total-body protein breakdown following 60 minutes of cycle ergometry [
While it is generally ideal to consume protein from whole-food sources, EAA supplementation has been suggested as an efficient method of promoting muscle growth while limiting caloric intake [
A single acute serving of high-quality protein containing the optimal 10 g dose of EAAs contains approximately 1.8 g of leucine [
Finally, liquid sources of protein are known to elevate BCAA, EAA, and leucine concentrations more rapidly [
A growing body of research has documented the benefits of interval sprint training (I) for improved anaerobic and aerobic athletic performance (Table
Beta-alanine is the rate-limiting precursor in the synthesis of carnosine, a cytoplasmic dipeptide that buffers intracellular H+ [
It is speculated that the effectiveness of
Caffeine is the most widely consumed drug in the world and one of the most extensively studied ergogenic aids. It is well known for enhancing endurance [
Peripheral mechanisms are also believed to contribute to caffeine’s ergogenic effects [
Trials published since 2013 have shown caffeine to improve agility [
Two recent trials evaluated the influence of caffeine on exercise performed in a glycogen depleted state. In the first, which was a crossover with 12 competitive cyclists, 3 mg·kg−1·BW of caffeine resulted in similar power output during high-intensity interval training (HIIT) compared to the placebo with normal glycogen levels, indicating that caffeine attenuates the performance decline caused by glycogen depletion [
Athletes who regularly consume caffeine may have a higher tolerance and experience less benefit [
The mechanisms and practical applications of creatine were previously discussed in relation to resistance (R) training for muscular development. In regard to high-intensity exercise performance, creatine is most commonly recognized for its effect on strength but has also shown potential for enhancing anaerobic endurance.
In a meta-analysis of 7 trials, including a total of 70 subjects, creatine supplementation with concomitant resistance training led to a 6.85 kg greater increase in 1–3 RM bench press [
Recent evidence indicates that creatine supplementation can enhance performance independently of training. In a trial including 77 men, creatine improved vertical jump, 20-yard shuttle run, 3-cone drill, and bench press endurance despite the lack of a training intervention [
Bicarbonate is a prominent buffer in human physiology. Supplementation with sodium bicarbonate increases blood pH and bicarbonate concentration, is particularly effective for enhancing anaerobic capacity, and may also improve strength and endurance [
Sodium bicarbonate supplementation has led to greater muscle contraction velocity following 50 minutes of high-intensity cycling [
In a recent trial including 11 well-trained endurance athletes, 0.3 g·kg−1·BW of sodium bicarbonate was consumed prior to exercise for 5 consecutive days [
In another recent trial including well-trained rowers, preexercise consumption of 0.3 g·kg−1·BW of sodium bicarbonate throughout 4 weeks of HIIT failed to improve time trial performance compared to the placebo [
Although the buffering effect of alkalizing food [
It is well known that intense exercise training induces muscle damage, including an imbalanced ratio of protein breakdown to protein synthesis and increased muscle soreness (i.e., perception of pain) and inflammation [
Ginger (
Curcumin, a polyphenol responsible for the yellow color of turmeric (curry powder), is known to reduce inflammation and influence metabolic function [
Though a plethora of information on the positive effects of curcumin on diseased individuals has been well documented [
The main components of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) found in fish oil are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and are produced from the omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA).
Cherries are known to be a rich source of bioactive compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects [
Several trials have also focused on recovery from endurance (E) exercise. Howatson et al. [
Emerging evidence indicates that oxidative stress is an important signaling mechanism for muscle remodeling [
More athletes are choosing nutritional supplements, from both natural and organic sources, to gain a competitive advantage in endurance-based sports. The increased energy demands of endurance activities require fluid, electrolyte, and energy consumption during training and competition (Table
Beetroot juice (BRJ) is among the most popular nutritional supplements to improve endurance performance [
Given these properties, NO has gained a lot of attention for possible E exercise improvements including increased O2, glucose, and other nutrient uptake to better fuel working muscles. Currently there is no means to provide NO supplementation through the diet (as it is a gas), thus BRJ and its high nitrate concentration are used as a means to generate NO endogenously. Indeed, there is an impressive and growing body of scientific data in support of whole food sources of inorganic nitrate, such as that found in BRJ, showing improved athletic performance.
Given the favorable impact of BRJ on E performance, it would seem likely that BRJ would also favorably impact other markers of athletic performance. As such, Lansley et al. [
Similarly, Bailey et al. [
These data confirm that BRJ improves endurance exercise performance; however, the minimal time needed to use BRJ for a performance benefit remains to be elucidated. One attempt to answer this question was reported by Vanhatalo et al. [
Eight healthy subjects (5 males, 3 females) consumed either 0.5 liters BRJ (5.2 mmol·d−1
The authors concluded that acute (1–5 days) dietary
In nonathletic populations, the impact of BRJ also has a significant positive impact on endurance performance. Kenjale et al. [
The mechanisms through which caffeine enhances performance, as well as the practical considerations for caffeine use, were previously discussed in relation to anaerobic performance. In addition to the potential for caffeine to enhance anaerobic performance, meta-analysis has indicated it is more effective for enhancing aerobic performance [
Several recent studies have demonstrated the beneficial influence of caffeine on endurance performance. In 10 well-trained cross-country skiers, 6 mg·kg−1·BW of caffeine consumed 45 minutes prior to exercise led to better performance and reduced rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during an 8 km double-poling time trial [
Although protein contributes to energy production during E exercise, it is a small contribution relative to fat and carbohydrate [
Storage capacity for glycogen is greatly limited compared to fat and is therefore more tightly regulated [
Carbohydrate metabolism inhibits fat oxidation, and one mechanism for this has been eloquently isolated to the carnitine palmitoyltransferase (CPT) system, which transports long-chain fatty acids through the inner mitochondrial membrane. Infusion of glucose and insulin has been shown to inhibit oxidation of long-chain fatty acids, but not medium-chain fatty acids, implicating the CPT system as a location of inhibition [
In addition to acute shifts in substrate selection, consistent changes in macronutrient intake can promote adaptations that may further enhance energy metabolism. For example, 5 days of reduced carbohydrate and increased fat intake in actively training cyclists increased genetic expression in skeletal muscle for fatty acid translocase (FAT), fatty acid binding protein, and
In addition to enzymatic changes, reduced carbohydrate and increased fat intake have been shown to increase intramuscular fat storage in conjunction with a lower respiratory quotient during exercise in both trained [
Given that carbohydrate restriction reduces glycogen [
Overall, a high-carbohydrate intake is not the only way to support optimal endurance performance. However, carbohydrate intake is likely to be more important for high-intensity performance [
Fluid intake and adequate hydration are critical during E training sessions and competition events. Fluid intake helps to maintain hydration, body temperature (thermoregulations), and plasma volume. For events lasting longer than one hour, athletes need fluids containing carbohydrates and electrolytes rather than water alone. Reduction in body water, availability of carbohydrates, and an inadequate electrolyte balance during prolonged exercise events will hamper performance and may lead to serious medical disorders such as heat exhaustion, heat stroke, or hyponatremia. A 1% reduction in body weight due to water loss may evoke undue stress on the cardiovascular system accompanied by increases in heart rate and inadequate heat transfer to the skin and the environment, an increase in plasma osmolality, and a decrease in plasma volume and affect the intracellular and extracellular electrolyte balance [
Water loss occurs through respiration, sweat, feces, and urine; however, during prolonged endurance most water is lost in sweat, especially during high environmental temperatures. About 580 kcals are lost for every liter of sweat that is evaporated [
The kidneys actively reabsorb sodium to regulate extracellular fluid osmolarity and this is largely controlled by aldosterone produced by the adrenal cortex. As serum osmolarity decreases, the adrenal cortex release of aldosterone is triggered resulting in more sodium reabsorbed and an increase in osmolarity. The kidneys also regulate aldosterone production through the rennin-angiotensin mechanism. Receptors in the juxtaglomerular complex of the kidney tubules respond to low volume (pressure) by releasing rennin, which leads to a hormonal cascade effect resulting in production of angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor, which stimulates the release of aldosterone.
Prolonged E exercise significantly taxes the body’s ability to regulate hydration status, body temperature, and electrolytes, thus maintaining hydration during exercise is critical to optimal performance. It is recommended that athletes ingest ~500 mL of fluid 1-2 hours prior to performance and continue to consume cool drinks in the amount of 4–6 ounces every 20 minutes during exercise to replace sweat losses [
Carbohydrate and electrolyte content, palatability, color, odor, taste, temperature, and texture of a sports drink can increase fluid consumption before, during, and after exercise [
Galloway and Maughan [
Several factors including fluid, fuel substrate, and electrolyte depletion have been implicated in the reduction of endurance performance. Recent investigations have suggested that consumption of lactate and fructose in energy-electrolyte hydration beverages improves performance and delays fatigue compared to glucose-electrolyte beverages via increased substrate oxidation and enhanced buffering capacity [
Hyperhydration may be induced by the oral consumption of glycerol which induces an osmotic gradient that favors greater renal water absorption. Studies examining the effect of hyperhydration by glycerol consumption on performance are equivocal. Several studies have shown performance enhancements [
As previously mentioned (see carbohydrate intake), endurance athletes must maintain blood glucose and replenish glycogen stores during and following longer bouts, respectively [
Jozsi et al. [
However, modification of these starches (i.e., hydrothermal modification) may decrease the digestion time altering the response of blood glucose and insulin regardless of the amylose : amylopectin ratio [
Optimal body composition plays a critical factor in athletic performance and it varies among different types of athletes and sports. It is well known that energy metabolism and body composition are directly related to each other and nutritional factors are the primary determinants of each (Table
The practical use of caffeine, as well as mechanisms through which it may enhance performance and energy metabolism, was previously discussed in relation to I and E athletic performance. In regard to energy metabolism, a meta-analysis including 6 trials found caffeine consumption to increase daily energy expenditure by approximately 100 kcal [
In contrast to previous results, two recent trials found 5 mg·kg−1·d−1·BW of caffeine, consumed for 4 days, to have no influence on resting, active, or total energy expenditure in young men [
Capsaicin, the known pungent flavor of hot red chili peppers, has become a popularly marketed natural spice for enhancing thermogenesis (i.e., catecholamines, fat oxidation) and improving satiety [
Because the pungent sensory burn and pain elicited from capsaicin may cause difficulty in palatability, the capsaicin-like compound capsiate, in the form of nonpungent red pepper “CH-19 Sweet,” is an alternative for those unaccustomed or opposed to eating spices. Despite the difference of activation sites, both capsaicin and capsiate bind with high affinity to TRPV1 located in the gut, increasing SNSa [
Carnitine is naturally synthesized in the body from the essential amino acids lysine and methionine [
Resistance starches (RS) are touted as weight loss wonder foods because they have digestive properties and satiating effects similar to those of dietary fibers [
In addition to improved postprandial glycemic/insulinemic responses, RS2 and 3 have shown to positively alter gut satiating peptides (glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP)) [
To determine differences in postprandial glycemia/insulinemia responses between RS (RS2 and RS4 cross-linked, XL) and a normal carbohydrate (dextrose), Haub et al. [
Shimotoyodome et al. [
Medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) consist of fatty acids ranging in length from 6 to 12 carbons [
MCTs also have the potential to increase energy expenditure [
In a recent trial including 7 normal-weight subjects, a breakfast meal containing 20 g of MCTs was found to increase diet-induced thermogenesis and fat oxidation compared to the same meal with a calorically matched content of sunflower oil [
Advances in athletic performance training and nutrition have prompted a reevaluation of our current practices in order for both (training and nutrition) to work synergistically with each other instead of in isolation to one another. The current review, albeit novel, bridges the gap between athletic performance training and sports nutrition by linking the scientifically validated multicomponent training model (timed-protein feedings; resistance training; interval sprint training; stretching/recovery training; and endurance training; PRISE) employed by most, if not all, athletes with specific performance enhancing diets (PEDs) to foster optimal athletic performance. The goal of this innovative review is to provide a new paradigm of sports nutrition that allows performance training (PRISE) and sports nutrition (PEDs) to complement each other instead of working apart from one another.
Paul J. Arciero is president and founder of Nourishing Science LLC, a company providing nutrition, fitness, and wellness consultative services utilizing certain content contained in this paper. The authors declare no other conflict of interests.
The authors are grateful to the following individuals for their assistance with the research conducted on the PRISE protocol: (i) nurses, Patricia Bosen NP and Michelle Lapo, (ii) student researchers, Christopher Darin, Qian Zheng, Kanokwan Bunsawat, JunZhu Zhang, Nicholas Steward, Jake Mendell, Caitlin Ketcham, Steven Brink, Steve Vasquez, Gabriel Zeiff, and Elise Britt, (iii) Scott Connelly MD for financial support, (iv) the hundreds of research study participants for their dedication, cooperation, and strong spirits.