Journal of Parasitology Research
Volume 2015 (2015), Article ID 893752, 5 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/893752

Research Article

Effect of Malathion on Reproductive Parameters of Engorged Female Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus Ticks of Punjab Districts, India

Jyoti, N. K. Singh, Harkirat Singh, and S. S. Rath

Department of Veterinary Parasitology, College of Veterinary Science, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana 141004, India

Received 31 July 2015; Accepted 28 September 2015

Academic Editor: Bernard Marchand

Copyright © 2015 Jyoti et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract.

The present study was aimed at evaluating effects of malathion on the various reproductive parameters, namely, egg mass weight (EMW), reproductive index (RI), percentage inhibition of oviposition (%IO), and hatchability percentage of eggs of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini 1887) females from 19 districts of Punjab, India. The effect on various parameters was found to be dose dependent and more discernible upon exposure to higher concentrations. Complete cessation of egg laying was recorded in tick isolates on exposure to 5000 ppm and above. The values of %IO ranged in 4.4–68.6, 25.2–76.2, 35.6–100.0, 45.7–100.0, and 71.4–100.0 in groups treated with 1250, 2500, 5000, 10000, and 20000 ppm of malathion, respectively. A low hatching % was recorded in eggs of all treated female ticks in comparison to control treated with distilled water and complete inhibition of hatching was recorded at 10000 ppm and above. However, the survival of the hatched larvae was not affected and was similar to control group. The results of the current study can be of immense help in formulation and implementation of effective tick control measures.

1. Introduction

One-host cattle tick, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini 1887), is an economically important ectoparasite of livestock and creates major problem for milk producers in tropical and subtropical countries including India. It causes severe economic losses by blood loss, reduction in weight gain, and direct damage to skin and hides and also by serving as a vector of various economically important infectious diseases [1]. It is the most prevalent tick infesting all age groups of domestic livestock in various agroclimatic zones of Punjab state, India [2, 3]. The global losses due to ticks and tick borne diseases (TTBDs) were estimated to be between US$ 13.9 and 18.7 billion annually [4] while in India the cost of controlling TTBDs has been estimated to be US$ 498.7 million/annum [5].

The control of this parasite is mostly based on the large scale repeated use of chemical acaricides, namely, organophosphates (OP), synthetic pyrethroids (SP), amidines, and macrocyclic lactones (ML) [6]. Pereira et al. [7] reported that to control R. (B.) microplus, it is necessary to consider that only 5% of parasites are located on the host, so the remaining 95% remain in the environment. Accordingly, several studies [8–10] have emphasized that the successful control of a tick population is related not only to the efficacy of an acaricide but also to the deleterious effects that these active agents cause over tick populations in the field, especially over the reproductive parameters of engorged R. (B.) microplus females.

In India, about 60% of livestock is reared by small and marginal farmers and use of various OP compounds (diazinon and malathion) is very common for the control of livestock and poultry pests [1]. OP compounds are also used against agriculturally important pests and for mass eradication of mosquito larvae in their breeding places [11]. A number of studies have shown development of OP resistance in R. (B.) microplus [12, 13] particularly in Punjab state [14, 15]. However, data on effect of malathion (OP) on the reproductive parameters of ticks indicating its overall tick control efficacy besides causing tick mortality is currently lacking. Based on these observations, the present study aimed to evaluate deleterious effects of malathion on the reproductive parameters of engorged R. (B.) microplus females that had detached from naturally infested cattle.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Location, Geography, and Climate of Study Area

Punjab state is located in the northwest region of India which extends from the latitudes 29.30°N to 32.32°N and longitudes 73.55°E to 76.50°E. It covers a geographical area of 50,362 km² and lies between altitudes 180 and 300 m above sea level. Average rainfall in state is 565.9 mm ranging from 915 mm in north to 102 mm in south with moderately humid climate.

2.2. Collection of Ticks

Fully engorged R. (B.) microplus adult female ticks were collected from the dairy sheds of nineteen districts (Amritsar, Barnala, Bathinda, Faridkot, Fatehgarh Sahib, Ferozepur, Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur, Jalandhar, Kapurthala, Ludhiana, Mansa, Moga, Muktsar, Pathankot, Patiala, Rupnagar, Sangrur, and SBS Nagar) of Punjab, India. The ticks were collected in separate vials, closed with muslin cloth to allow air and moisture exchange, brought to the Entomology Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Parasitology, College of Veterinary Sciences, GADVASU, Ludhiana, and kept at °C and % relative humidity (RH).

2.3. Acaricide

Technical grade (97.9%) malathion (AccuStandard Inc., USA) was used to prepare the stock solution of 10,000 ppm in methanol. For the bioassay, different concentrations of malathion (1250, 2500, 5000, 10000, and 20000 ppm) were prepared in distilled water from the stock solution and tested against the various field isolates of R. (B.) microplus.

2.4. Adult Immersion Test (AIT)

It was conducted as per the method of Drummond et al. [16]. Briefly, 120 engorged females for each isolate were randomly separated into groups of ten (10). A dose-dependent response study was conducted by immersing adult ticks for two minutes in various concentrations of malathion. Two replicates, with 10 engorged females per replicate, were performed for each concentration. Control ticks were immersed in distilled water. After immersion, the ticks were dried on filter paper with the help of paper towels and placed in sterile Petri dishes for complete drying. Afterwards, the ticks were weighed, were transferred to individual glass tubes covered with muslin cloth, and were kept in incubator maintained at °C and % RH. The adult ticks which survived the exposure of drug laid eggs which were allowed to hatch to larvae under similar conditions of incubation. The ticks which did not oviposit even after 14 days posttreatment were considered dead and the following parameters were compared:

(a)Weight of engorged female.(b)Egg mass weight (EMW) laid by the live ticks, recorded at 14 days after treatment.(c)Reproductive index (RI) = egg mass weight/engorged female weight.(d)Percentage inhibition of oviposition (%IO) = [(RI control − RI treated)/RI control × 100].(e)Hatching percentage of eggs.

Dose response data of RI and %IO were analyzed by probit method [17] using GraphPad Prism version 4.0, San Diego, CA, USA. The data were statistically analyzed using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with group multiple comparisons by Tukey’s test (GraphPad Prism 4).

3. Results and Discussion

The effect of exposure of increasing concentrations of malathion on reproductive parameters of engorged R. (B.) microplus ticks, namely, egg mass weight (EMW), reproductive index (RI), percentage inhibition of oviposition (%IO), and hatching percentage, was studied by AIT. The regression graph of these reproductive parameters of treated ticks was plotted against log values of progressively increasing concentrations of malathion (Table 1). A negative dose-dependent slope was recorded for mean EMW in all tick isolates because with the increasing concentrations of malathion the surviving ticks laid significantly () fewer eggs. Consequently, the mean RI of treated ticks showed a decreasing dose-dependent response and a negative slope was recorded. Results thus indicate that although the increase in concentration of malathion may have not caused one hundred per cent mortality in ticks, the surviving ticks showed a significant decrease () in their efficiency to convert their live weight into egg mass. Also, a dose-dependent significant increase () in the mean %IO of treated ticks along with a positive slope was recorded.

Table 1: Slope, , and values of reproductive parameters of different isolates of R. (B.) microplus upon AIT with malathion.

Tick isolates
Variables
Slope ± SE

value

Amritsar
EMW
−27.74 ± 4.02
0.94
0.0063

RI
−0.24 ± 0.03
0.93
0.0074

IO%
40.20 ± 6.19
0.93
0.0074

Barnala
EMW
−27.42 ± 5.38
0.89
0.0146

RI
−0.17 ± 0.03
0.89
0.0153

IO%
31.63 ± 6.31
0.89
0.0153

Bathinda
EMW
−33.02 ± 7.38
0.86
0.0209

RI
−0.3375 ± 0.07
0.86
0.0222

IO%
68.18 ± 15.63
0.86
0.0223

Faridkot
EMW
−23.91 ± 5.32
0.87
0.0205

RI
−0.24 ± 0.053
0.87
0.0199

IO%
40.91 ± 8.99
0.87
0.0199

Fatehgarh Sahib
EMW
−39.07 ± 6.10
0.93
0.0077

RI
−0.37 ± 0.06
0.92
0.0088

IO%
80.00 ± 13.10
0.92
0.0088

Ferozepur
EMW
−15.33 ± 2.53
0.92
0.0091

RI
−0.16 ± 0.028
0.91
0.0110

IO%
34.81 ± 6.15
0.91
0.0109

Gurdaspur
EMW
−21.90 ± 10.64
0.58
0.1317

RI
−0.2336 ± 0.07
0.78
0.0453

IO%
46.26 ± 13.98
0.78
0.0454

Hoshiarpur
EMW
−37.39 ± 6.69
0.91
0.0113

RI
−0.2951 ± 0.07
0.84
0.0272

IO%
65.02 ± 14.31
0.87
0.0200

Jalandhar
EMW
−55.50 ± 7.87
0.94
0.0059

RI
−0.44 ± 0.06
0.93
0.0065

IO%
73.37 ± 10.79
0.93
0.0065

Kapurthala
EMW
−22.42 ± 3.90
0.91
0.0105

RI
−0.23 ± 0.03
0.92
0.0091

IO%
47.92 ± 7.92
0.92
0.0091

Ludhiana
EMW
−14.31 ± 4.88
0.74
0.0109

RI
−0.12 ± 0.03
0.81
0.0368

IO%
22.11 ± 6.13
0.81
0.0367

Mansa
EMW
−0.03 ± 0.01
0.79
0.0417

RI
−0.20 ± 0.06
0.79
0.0410

IO%
0.34 ± 0.10
0.79
0.0411

Moga
EMW
−29.56 ± 2.09
0.98
0.0008

RI
−0.26 ± 0.01
0.98
0.0006

IO%
49.11 ± 3.27
0.98
0.0006

Muktsar
EMW
−26.55 ± 4.21
0.93
0.0081

RI
−0.28 ± 0.05
0.89
0.0148

IO%
51.42 ± 10.15
0.89
0.0148

Pathankot
EMW
−27.03 ± 4.728
0.91
0.0106

RI
−0.2924 ± 0.05
0.91
0.0114

IO%
52.78 ± 9.45
0.91
0.0114

Patiala
EMW
−40.03 ± 11.86
0.79
0.0432

RI
−0.37 ± 0.11
0.79
0.0431

IO%
82.31 ± 24.36
0.79
0.0431

Rupnagar
EMW
−17.59 ± 2.56
0.94
0.0063

RI
−0.18 ± 0.02
0.96
0.0037

IO%
37.63 ± 4.55
0.96
0.0037

Sangrur
EMW
−39.36 ± 12.04
0.78
0.0468

RI
−0.32 ± 0.10
0.77
0.0500

IO%
0.55 ± 0.17
0.77
0.0500

SBS Nagar
EMW
−18.58 ± 4.35
0.85
0.0236

RI
−0.21 ± 0.03
0.92
0.0093

IO%
50.28 ± 8.37
0.92
0.0093

EMW: egg mass weight; RI: reproductive index; %IO: percentage inhibition of oviposition.

The effect of malathion on the average EMW of treated ticks was recorded to be dose dependent and the decrease was more pronounced at higher concentrations. Complete cessation of egg laying was recorded at 5000 ppm in one isolate, 10000 ppm in four isolates, and 20000 ppm in six isolates, whereas eight isolates laid eggs even upon exposure to the highest concentrations (Table 2). Similarly, details of the effect of malathion on the RI of treated ticks are presented in Table 3. The values of RI ranged from 0.0 to 0.33 in ticks exposed to the recommended concentration of malathion (5000 ppm) used in field conditions. The values of %IO ranged in 4.4–68.6, 25.2–76.2, 35.6–100.0, 45.7–100.0, and 71.4–100.0 in groups treated with 1250, 2500, 5000, 10000, and 20000 ppm of malathion, respectively (Table 4).

Table 2: Effect of malathion on egg mass weight of different isolates of R. (B.) microplus.

Isolate
Average egg mass weight (mg)

Malathion concentration (ppm)
Control (DW)

1250
2500
5000
10000
20000

Amritsar
29.7
24.2
15.0
0.0
0.0
69.9

Barnala
55.9
39.2
37.3
22.3
23.0
84.2

Bathinda
46.8
31.0
28.5
25.0
0.0
52.8

Faridkot
27.2
17.6
3.5
0.0
0.0
51.6

Fatehgarh Sahib
41.0
35.7
17.5
0.0
0.0
55.2

Ferozepur
27.8
27.3
17.0
14.7
11.0
49.6

Gurdaspur
35.0
26.0
26.4
20.0
0.0
50.1

Hoshiarpur
35.0
27.0
28.5
16.3
0.0
50.1

Jalandhar
68.1
53.2
22.0
22.0
0.0
77.9

Kapurthala
26.8
14.0
11.0
0.0
0.0
47.6

Ludhiana
20.8
16.6
15.5
15.0
0.0
76.9

Mansa
65.3
30.8
37.3
18.5
15.0
99.6

Moga
50.8
41.2
33.1
20.8
16.5
65.1

Muktsar
45.5
29.0
23.5
16.0
12.0
56.5

Pathankot
37.4
21.5
17.1
15.0
0.0
56.5

Patiala
43.3
34.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
46.6

Rupnagar
29.3
27.9
17.0
13.5
10.0
50.4

Sangrur
60.9
30.8
13.33
14.0
10.0
72.4

SBS Nagar
29.4
29.0
14.1
11.7
10.0
42.0

Table 3: Effect of malathion on RI of field isolates of R. (B.) microplus.

Isolate
Reproductive index (RI)

Malathion concentration (ppm)
Control (DW)

1250
2500
5000
10000
20000

Amritsar
0.26
0.22
0.14
0.0
0.0
0.61

Barnala
0.34
0.26
0.26
0.14
0.15
0.53

Bathinda
0.47
0.34
0.30
0.27
0.0
0.49

Faridkot
0.28
0.19
0.04
0.0
0.0
0.60

Fatehgarh Sahib
0.39
0.35
0.17
0.0
0.0
0.47

Ferozepur
0.29
0.29
0.18
0.15
0.12
0.46

Gurdaspur
0.34
0.23
0.25
0.21
0.0
0.51

Hoshiarpur
0.39
0.29
0.33
0.19
0.0
0.51

Jalandhar
0.59
0.42
0.17
0.18
0.0
0.60

Kapurthala
0.28
0.15
0.12
0.0
0.0
0.49

Ludhiana
0.18
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.0
0.56

Mansa
0.37
0.20
0.26
0.11
0.10
0.60

Moga
0.46
0.40
0.29
0.20
0.15
0.54

Muktsar
0.47
0.32
0.18
0.15
0.12
0.56

Pathankot
0.41
0.24
0.21
0.17
0.0
0.55

Patiala
0.41
0.32
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.46

Rupnagar
0.32
0.29
0.19
0.14
0.11
0.49

Sangrur
0.53
0.27
0.14
0.15
0.11
0.58

SBS Nagar
0.35
0.31
0.18
0.13
0.12
0.43

Reproductive index (RI) = egg mass weight/engorged female weight.

Table 4: Effect of malathion on %IO of different isolates of R. (B.) microplus.

Isolate
Percentage inhibition of oviposition (%IO)

Malathion concentration (ppm)
Control (DW)

1250
2500
5000
10000
20000

Amritsar
57.2
64.6
76.4
100.0
100.0
0.0

Barnala
36.3
50.8
51.1
73.5
72.6
0.0

Bathinda
4.4
31.3
39.4
45.7
100.0
0.0

Faridkot
54.0
68.7
93.8
100.0
100.0
0.0

Fatehgarh Sahib
16.9
25.2
63.9
100.0
100.0
0.0

Ferozepur
36.6
37.5
61.4
67.4
74.1
0.0

Gurdaspur
32.9
53.7
49.9
58.8
100.0
0.0

Hoshiarpur
22.2
42.8
35.6
82.9
100.0
0.0

Jalandhar
8.9
30.7
71.1
69.8
100.0
0.0

Kapurthala
42.3
68.9
75.0
100.0
100.0
0.0

Ludhiana
68.6
76.2
78.3
79.9
100.0
0.0

Mansa
38.6
66.8
56.9
81.0
84.0
0.0

Moga
15.4
26.2
45.5
62.3
71.4
0.0

Muktsar
16.2
42.7
67.2
72.9
78.5
0.0

Pathankot
26.5
56.7
62.9
68.8
100.0
0.0

Patiala
10.9
30.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
0.0

Rupnagar
35.9
41.6
62.5
70.9
77.9
0.0

Sangrur
9.1
53.1
76.8
74.9
81.6
0.0

SBS Nagar
17.9
27.6
57.8
69.6
72.6
0.0

%IO = [(RI control − RI treated)/RI control × 100].

The hatching percentage of eggs was determined by visual estimation and a dose-dependent effect was recorded. A low hatching percentage was recorded in eggs laid by all malathion treated female ticks in comparison to control ticks treated with distilled water. Complete inhibition of hatching was recorded in eggs laid by all ticks treated with concentrations of 10000 ppm and above; however, the survival of the hatched larvae was not affected by malathion treatment and was similar to control group.

The absence of studies conducted with the malathion that was used in the present study, regarding its effects on reproductive parameters of fully engorged R. (B.) microplus females, does not allow a comparison with our obtained results. Most trial studies using chemical acaricides are conducted to detect the resistance of R. (B.) microplus to these compounds using in vitro methodologies, such as the Adult Immersion Test (AIT), Larval Packet Test (LPT), or the Larval Immersion Test (LIT), recognized by the Food and Agriculture Organization as a standard for the evaluation of efficacy or resistance [18–21].

Further, in the present study, technical grade malathion was selected over commercial formulation for the bioassay because commercial products are prepared with many proprietary ingredients and it is difficult to assess the responses due to active ingredients [22]. For the preparation of stock solution, technical grade malathion was dissolved in 100% methanol and the working concentrations were prepared using water. The use of organic solvents facilitates the adsorption of compound over the surface area of target biological materials and possibly enhances penetration of active ingredients of the acaricide across the exoskeleton [23].

Extensive experience in the field has led to suggestions that the use of strictly managed, uninterrupted, short-interval treatments at recommended concentrations is a reliable means of avoiding or delaying resistance. However, it has also been proposed that intermittent use of high concentration acaricides to kill ticks with resistant alleles may provide a basic means of delaying resistance [24]. Increased concentration has been used successfully in controlling DDT-, OP-, and SP-resistant strains of R. (B.) microplus [25]. This also helped to prolong the life of OP acaricides, but the potential host toxicity and chemical residue problems now need to be reconsidered before an increased concentration could be used for resistance management. However, use of increased concentrations for treatment of animals shed for the elimination of off-the-host stages of the ticks could be beneficial in tick control as they constitute around 95% of total tick population [7]. Several studies [8–10] have emphasized the successful control of a tick population, due to the deleterious effects that active agents cause over tick populations in the field, especially over the reproductive parameters of engorged R. (B.) microplus females. This would further reduce the number of treatments of the animals and would lead to low residual effects in the milk and meat products thus benefitting the end user health.

Based on this finding, the results that we obtained in this present study regarding the reproductive parameters of fully engorged Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus females might be sufficient to reduce the number of chemical treatments administered to cattle.

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, for funding through Women Scientist Scheme (WOS-A) Project no. SR/WOS-A/LS-493/2011 to the senior author. Sincere thanks are also due to the Director of Research, GADVASU, Ludhiana, for providing necessary help.

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