Sri Lanka harbors over 3000 plant species, and most of these plants have been of immense importance in the traditional systems of medicine in the country. Although there is a rich reserve of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants, in-depth studies have not been pursued yet to compile the ethnoflora with traditional medicinal applications for the scientific community. Thus, as a continuation of our ethnobotanical inventory work in different regions in the country, the present study was carried out in one of the administrative districts in the North Central area of Sri Lanka known as Polonnaruwa district. The information on the significance of medicinal plants as curative and preventive agents of diseases was collected through semistructured and open-ended interviews from 284 volunteers who were randomly recruited for the study. Ethnobotanical data were analyzed using relative frequency of citation (RFC), family importance value (FIV), and use value (UV). Out of the total participants, 53.7% claimed the use of herbal remedies. A total of 64 medicinal plants belonging to 42 plant families were recorded, out of which
Medicinal plants have been used since time immemorial in both developing and developed countries; for example, plants were considered as the material basis of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) as well as many other ethnic medicine traditions in China [
As evident from the ethnobotanical studies conducted in other South Asian countries as well as in Africa, the rural communities exploit plants that are easily available in their surroundings for food and medicaments [
Polonnaruwa district is located in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka (Figure
Location of Polonnaruwa district.
Medicinal plant use was documented in all seven divisional secretariat areas (i.e., Dimbulagala, Elahera, Hingurakgoda, Lankapura, Medirigiriya, Thamankaduwa, Welikanda; see Supplementary
The ethical approval was obtained from the ethical review committee, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka. SPSS version 20 was used to recode the collected data.
Plant species used as herbal remedies were collected, dried, preserved, and mounted on herbarium sheets. The plant materials were identified by one of the authors (MTN), who is a botanist. Botanical names and families were verified using book series titled “Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon” [
The knowledge on the usage of medicinal plants was quantitatively assessed by the relative frequency of citation (RFC), family importance value (FIV) of a plant family, and use value (UV) as described in our previous study [
The value of RFC for a particular species of medicinal plants is based on the citing percentage of informants for that particular species, where RFC = FC/N (0 < RFC < 1), in which RFC is the relative frequency of citation, FC is the number of informants who mentioned the species, and
Family importance value (FIV) of a plant family was calculated by taking the percentage of informants mentioning the family, where FIV = FC (family)/
Use value indicates the relative importance of plant species known locally, and the following formula was used to determine
As speculated, the results of this study revealed that the majority of the inhabitants who have participated in this study depended on the indigenous plant resources as treatments and preventive measures against a number of disease conditions.
Out of the total of 284 informants, 132 (53.7%) claimed the use of medicinal plants for the treatment of various ailments such as diabetes, inflammatory conditions, and skin diseases, while the rest of the informants (46.3%) mentioned the nonadherence to herbal remedies. In addition, these plants are also used as energy boosters and cosmetics. Among those people, 47.6% firmly believed in the safety and low adverse effects associated with the herbal formulations and mentioned this as a reason for their preference. In addition, the previous success with herbal remedies (35.86%) was also a main contributing factor for the people to continue with plant-based therapies. Unlike the observations of our previous ethnobotanical study conducted in Gampaha District, Western Province of Sri Lanka [
Statistics on the usage of herbal therapeutics.
Parameter | Percentage |
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Male | 59.8 |
Female | 40.2 |
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30–45 | 34.09 |
46–60 | 38.64 |
61–75 | 24.24 |
>75 | 3.03 |
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University degree/diploma and above | 2.3 |
12 years of school education | 15.2 |
1–11 years of school education | 82.5 |
No schooling | 0 |
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From parents/grandparents | 60.42 |
Neighbours/friends | 13.89 |
Doctors/traditional physicians | 7.64 |
Media | 13.19 |
Own experience | 4.86 |
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Safe/less side effects | 47.59 |
Previous success | 35.86 |
Easy access to the plant materials | 13.79 |
High cost of other treatment methods | 0 |
Nonavailability of modern health-care facilities | 2.76 |
The study revealed the use of 64 medicinal plants belonging to 42 plant families, out of which
Family importance value (FIV) of the ten plant families with the highest FIV.
Family | FIV (%) |
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Zingiberaceae | 22.8 |
Apiaceae | 19.9 |
Acanthaceae | 18.3 |
Rutaceae | 12.6 |
Fabaceae | 10.2 |
Amaranthaceae | 9.7 |
Menispermaceae | 9.3 |
Apocynaceae | 8.9 |
Cucurbitaceae | 8.1 |
Meliaceae | 7.7 |
Life form of the plants used as herbal remedies.
Plant parts used in herbal preparations.
Mode of utilization of plants to treat various disease conditions.
The summary of the medicinal plant species used in Polonnaruwa district to treat various disease conditions is given in Table
Medicinal plant species used in Polonnaruwa district to treat different disease conditions.
Family | Scientific name and voucher specimen number | Vernacular name (in Sinhala) | Life form | Parts used | Preparation | Disease conditions treated | RFC |
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Reported usage in literature [ |
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Acanthaceae |
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Adhatoda | Shrub | Leaves, twigs, roots | Infusion, poultice | Swellings in joints, cough, asthma, catarrh | 0.073 | 1.56 | Diarrhea, fever, asthma |
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Neermulli | Herb | Whole plant | Infusion, decoction, porridge | Urinary diseases and urinary calculi, headache | 0.109 | 1.1 | Oedema, kidney stones, jaundice, rheumatism | |
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Acoraceae |
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Wadakaha | Herb | Root | Infusion, paste made with milk | Cough, worm infestation | 0.004 | 1.0 | Asthma, rheumatism, bowel complaints, internal ulceration |
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Amaranthaceae |
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Polpala | Herb | Whole plant | Infusion, porridge | Urinary diseases, as an energy booster, to purify blood, body pain | 0.085 | 1.57 | Kidney stones, cough, headache |
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Mukunuwenna | Herb | Whole plant | Salad, porridge | Body pain, as an energy booster | 0.012 | 1.67 | Liver diseases, acute and chronic pyelitis, snake bites | |
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Amaryllidaceae |
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Sudulunu | Herb | Bulb | Infusion, porridge | Asthma stomachache, body pain | 0.024 | 2.5 | Asthma, gout |
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Anacardiaceae |
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Amberella | Tree | Fruit | Cook with coconut milk | High blood pressure | 0.008 | 1.0 | Dysentery, rheumatism, earache |
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Apiaceae |
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Gotu kola | Herb | Whole plant | Salad, juice, porridge | Catarrh, eye diseases, as an energy booster | 0.016 | 2.0 | Kidney diseases, skin diseases, rheumatism, fever, dysentery, pains, epilepsy |
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Koththamalli | Herb | Seeds | Infusion | Cold, fever, asthma, body pain | 0.163 | 1.7 | Cold, fever, cough | |
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Asamodagum | Herb | Leaves | Salad | Stomachache, worm infestation | 0.020 | 1.4 | Cough, asthma, dysentery | |
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Apocynaceae |
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Iramusu | Herb | Root, whole plant | Infusion, porridge | Cold, fever, to purify blood, body pain, diabetes | 0.089 | 1.32 | Purification of blood, oedema, skin rashes, cough, asthma |
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Araceae |
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Kohila | Herb | Whole plant | Porridge | As an energy booster | 0.004 | 1.0 | Piles |
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Arecaceae |
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Kurumba | Tree | Tender coconut water | Drink | Fever | 0.004 | 1.0 | Diuretic, anthelmintic |
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Asparagaceae |
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Hathawariya | Climber | Whole plant | Infusion | Urinary diseases and urinary calculi | 0.024 | 1.0 | Diuretic, dysentery, rheumatism, urinary and kidney diseases |
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Asphodelaceae |
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Komarika | Herb | Leaves | Grind to get the juice | Burns, for the growth of hair | 0.008 | 1.5 | Swellings, burns, skin diseases, urinary diseases, fever |
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Asteraceae |
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Katu-nerinchi | Herb | Leaves | Paste | Pain in the joints | 0.004 | 1.0 | Arthritis, rheumatism, leprosy |
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Keekirindiya | Herb | Whole plant | Paste | For the growth of hair | 0.012 | 1.0 | Skin diseases, ulcers, stimulate the growth of hair, fever, arthritis | |
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Capparaceae |
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Wela | Herb | Whole plant | Infusion | Pain in joints | 0.004 | 1.0 | Arthritis, rheumatism |
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Lunuwarana | Tree | Bark | Decoction | Urinary calculi | 0.036 | 1.0 | Urinary calculi | |
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Celastraceae |
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Panakka | Shrub | Leaves | Salad | Urinary diseases | 0.004 | 1.0 | Urinary diseases |
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Combretaceae |
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Aralu | Tree | Fruit | Powder | Fever | 0.016 | 1.0 | Fever, eye diseases, piles, chronic dysentery |
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Bulu | Tree | Fruit | Powder | Fever, diarrhea | 0.012 | 1.67 | Diarrhea, fever, sore eyes | |
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Costaceae |
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Thebu | Shrub | Leaves | Salad, infusion | Diabetes | 0.020 | 1.0 | Fever, cough, skin diseases |
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Crassulaceae |
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Akkapana | Herb | Leaves | Infusion | Cough, asthma, cold | 0.008 | 2.0 | Urinary diseases, diarrhea, dysentery, cough, cold |
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Cucurbitaceae |
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Kowakka | Vine | Leaves | Salad, infusion | Diabetes | 0.081 | 1.0 | Diabetes, urinary calculi, skin diseases |
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Elaeocarpaceae |
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Veralu | Tree | Tender leaves | Juice | For the growth of hair | 0.004 | 1.0 | Dandruff, abscesses, joint swellings |
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Euphorbiaceae |
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Nelli | Tree | Fruit | Poultice | Redness and swellings in eye | 0.016 | 1.0 | Inflammation in eye, gonorrhea, diarrhea, urinary diseases |
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Enderu | Shrub | Leaves | Poultice | Headache, joint pains, swellings | 0.020 | 1.6 | Headache, boils, rheumatism | |
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Fabaceae | Bauhinia racemosa Lam. |
Maila | Shrub | Leaves | Salad | Urinary diseases | 0.004 | 1.0 | Pain, fever, urinary diseases |
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Ranawara | Shrub | Flower, leaves | Infusion | Urinary diseases and urinary calculi, to purify blood | 0.045 | 1.27 | Fever, diabetes, urinary diseases, rheumatism, eye conjunctivitis, skin diseases | |
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Kathurumurunga | Shrub | Leaves | Salad | Fissuring of lip, ulcers in mouth | 0.032 | 1.0 | Oedema, wounds, eye diseases, coughs, fever, skin diseases | |
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Siyabala | Tree | Leaves | Paste | Swelling in joints | 0.020 | 1.0 | Boils, rheumatism | |
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Hippocrateaceae |
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Kothala himbutu | Climbing shrub | Stem | Infusion | Diabetes | 0.061 | 1.0 | Diabetes, skin diseases, rheumatism |
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Lamiaceae |
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Gata thumba | Herb | Leaves | Salad | Worm infestation | 0.016 | 1.0 | Fever, gout, skin diseases, worm infestation |
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Nika | Shrub | Leaves | Smoke, paste | Cough, asthma, fever, swellings in joints, cold | 0.041 | 1.4 | Rheumatic swellings, headache, catarrh, asthma | |
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Loganiaceae |
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Ingini | Tree | Seeds | Paste | Swellings in joints | 0.008 | 1.0 | Eye diseases, diarrhea |
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Lythraceae |
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Delum | Shrub | Leaves | Infusion to wash eyes | Eye diseases | 0.012 | 1.0 | Eye infections, dysentery, cough, asthma, fever |
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Malvaceae |
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Babila | Herb | Roots | Infusion, decoction | Fever, pain | 0.008 | 1.5 | Fever, impotency, rheumatism |
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Meliaceae |
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Kohomba | Tree | Leaves, stem | Poultice, paste, infusion | Pain in joints, itching diabetes, worm infestation | 0.077 | 1.21 | Catarrh, leprosy and skin diseases, rheumatism, ulcers and wounds |
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Menispermaceae |
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Veniwelgata | Woody climber | Stem | Infusion | Fever, cough, pain, asthma, skin diseases in children | 0.081 | 2.6 | Fever, tetanus, dressing wounds and ulcers |
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Rasakida | Climber | Stem | Infusion | Fever | 0.012 | 1.0 | Fever, skin diseases, diabetes, dysentery, rheumatism | |
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Moraceae |
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Attikka | Tree | Fruit | As a curry | Diabetes | 0.020 | 1.0 | Urinary diseases, dysentery, diabetes |
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Kos | Tree | Root | Infusion | Diabetes | 0.004 | 1.0 | Skin diseases, asthma, diabetes, swellings and abscesses | |
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Moringaceae |
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Murunga | Shrub | Bark | Infusion, poultice | Asthma, swellings | 0.041 | 1.3 | Asthma, rheumatism, gout, remedy for snake-bite poisoning |
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Myristicaceae |
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Sadikka | Shrub | Fruit | Paste prepared with lime juice | Stomachache | 0.032 | 1.0 | Nausea, vomiting, stomachache |
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Piperaceae |
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Bulath | Climber | Leaves | Paste | Stomachache | 0.008 | 1.0 | Cough, antiseptic |
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Gammiris | Climber | Seeds | Paste | Stomachache | 0.012 | 1.0 | Cough, fever, piles | |
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Poaceae |
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Belatana | Herb | Whole plant | Poultice | Swellings and sprains | 0.024 | 1.0 | Sprains and dislocations |
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Rubiaceae |
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Kopi | Shrub | Fruit | Infusion | Stomachache | 0.049 | 1.0 | Diarrhea, bleeding wounds |
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Rathmal | Shrub | Flowers | Infusion | Skin diseases in children | 0.004 | 1.0 | Dysentery, reddened eyes and eruptions in children, catarrh | |
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Rutaceae |
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Beli | Tree | Leaves, roots, flower | Decoction, infusion | Asthma, fever | 0.008 | 2.5 | Fever, asthma, dysentery, piles, dyspepsia, |
|
Embul dodam | Tree | Fruit | Juice | Cough, to draw out phlegm | 0.004 | 1.0 | Chronic cough | |
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Dehi | Tree | Leaves | Smoke, juice | Cough, cold, headache, stomachache | 0.073 | 1.22 | Cough, stomachache, cleaning wounds, dysentery | |
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Karapincha | Shrub | Leaves | Porridge | High blood pressure | 0.041 | 1.0 | Constipation, diarrhea, dysentery | |
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Santalaceae |
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Sudu handun | Shrub | Bark | Paste | Swellings, pain | 0.016 | 1.0 | Fever, diarrhea, dysentery, gastric irritation, skin diseases, local inflammation |
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Sapotaceae |
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Mee | Tree | Seeds | Oil, poultice | Swellings and pain in joints | 0.036 | 1.0 | Fractures, rheumatism, snake bites |
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Scrophulariaceae | Scoparia dulcis L. |
Wal koththamalli | Herb | Whole plant | Infusion | Diabetes | 0.016 | 1.0 | Ear and eye diseases, liver diseases, leprosy, nasopharyngeal infections |
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Solanaceae |
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Katuwelbatu | Herb | Leaves | Infusion | Fever, cough, asthma | 0.053 | 1.46 | Cough, asthma, colic fever, toothache |
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Ela batu | Herb | Leaves | Porridge, smoke | Cough, asthma | 0.004 | 2.0 | Rheumatism, cough, diarrhea | |
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Theaceae |
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Tea | Shrub | Leaves | Infusion | Stomachache | 0.008 | 1.0 | Catarrh, urinary diseases |
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Verbenaceae |
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Gandapana | Shrub | Leaves | Smoke | Fever, cough, asthma | 0.008 | 1.5 | Asthma, fever, cough |
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Zingiberaceae |
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Araththa | Herb | Rhizome | Infusion | Fever | 0.057 | 1.0 | Rheumatism, bronchitis |
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Kaha | Herb | Rhizome | Paste, powder | Wounds, skin diseases, sprains | 0.024 | 1.5 | Sprains, wounds, dysentery, jaundice, rheumatism, skin diseases | |
|
Inguru | Herb | Rhizome | Infusion | Fever, cold, asthma, cough | 0.146 | 1.44 | Cold, cough, fever, asthma |
As depicted in Figure
Number of plants used against different disease conditions.
Interestingly, the medicinal uses of some of the plants mentioned by the informants have not been documented in the literature particularly in the popular book series on Sri Lankan medicinal plants by Jayaweera [
Although the majority of the people in the nonuser category (50.9%) had used some kind of herbal therapeutics at some stage of their lives, the usage was discontinued mainly due to the difficulty in the preparation and collection of plant materials from their surroundings (59%). In addition, the relatively long period of time taken for healing, unpleasant smell, and the taste has also hindered their use. Moreover, some have profusely refused such remedies, due to the unavailability of scientific records on the safety and the efficacy of herbal formulations. Interestingly, 75.4% of these nonusers mentioned that they would shift to herbal products if the efficacy of these products could be scientifically validated.
This study reports the first in-depth ethnobotanical survey in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka, where agriculture is the primary livelihood of the inhabitants of the area. Among 64 medicinal plants belonging to 42 reported plant families, the family importance value was highest in Zingiberaceae. The most popular medicinal plants among the inhabitants of Polonnaruwa district include
Relative frequency of citation
Family importance value
Use value.
The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article.
The ethical approval was obtained from the ethical review committee, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka.
Informed consent was obtained in writing prior to the study.
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.
The authors gratefully acknowledge “Faculty of Medicine-Research Grant 2015” from University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka.
Supplementary 1: the map of Polonnaruwa district (the district boundary is marked in purple, and the sites where the data were collected are marked with squares). Supplementary 2: the questionnaire which was used to collect the information on utility of herbal preparations and some demographic information of the informants.