Microbial Biofungicides as a Substitute for Chemical Fungicides in the Control of Phytopathogens: Current Perspectives and Research Directions

These days, two important issues are causing concern in the global community: the alarmingly growing trend of the human population and the issue of food security. To this end, people around the world have been searching for solutions that could feed the needy in a sustainable way. In response to this urgent call, scientists from around the world started working on increasing crop production and productivity by controlling crop pathogens that could harm the productivity of crops. Synthetic fungicides have been in use for controlling crop diseases for several decades, but later, due to the evidenced side effects of the fungicides, there have been attempts to shift towards a less cost-effective and eco-friendly method of controlling crop diseases, and so far, many remarkable results have been achieved. However, due to the less effective and shorter shelf life of microbial biofungicides, as well as the less accessibility of these microbial biofungicides to growers around the world, it became difficult to remove the fungicides totally from the market. To minimize this problem, researchers suggested an integrated approach: the combination of microbial biofungicides with a reduced dose of synthetic fungicides. Hence, this review explored the status as well as the merits and demerits of microbial biofungicides as compared to synthetic fungicides.


Introduction
Global food security is one of the major issues that needs the utmost attention of the scientifc community in the near future.Te growing food demand of the society is putting enormous pressure on the resources over which the food supply of the civilization depends.Te world's food production has to double in order to keep up with the rate of population growth.However, the infuence of plant pathogens on the loss and productivity of major crops is increasing, and this challenge is more pronounced in developing countries [1].Many plant pathogens cause diseases in agricultural felds [2].Tey can range from viroids of a few hundred nucleotides to higher plants.Teir results range from mild symptoms to disasters in which vast areas are devastated by food crops.Over 800 million people worldwide lack access to enough food; 1.3 billion people survive on less than $1 per day; and at least 10% of the world's food production is lost to deadly plant diseases [3].
In recent decades, eforts are being taken all over the world to increase food production.Tis is achieved through the development of improved, disease-resistant varieties of staple crops; the increased use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides; and the expansion of irrigated cropland.However, these eforts did not seem to be quite fruitful as the rate of population growth in certain areas was much higher and their increased food production could not cope with the increasing population pressure [1].Now, the challenge is to feed more with less environmental damage.So, taking urgent measurements on plant pathogens that cause huge damage and loss is a top priority for concerned bodies.Adoption of technologically sound, traditional knowledge-inclusive, socioeconomically sensible recommended agricultural practices can be the basis for achieving future food demands [4].
Sustainable agriculture is necessary for maintaining farmer livelihoods, enhancing food and nutrition security, and sustaining long-term national growth [5].Te improvement or maintenance of environmental quality while simultaneously protecting natural resources is a prerequisite for sustainable development [6].Tus, sustainable agriculture necessitates the efcient management of agricultural resources in order to control pathogen and disease issues to the point where they do not negatively infuence crops by upsetting the natural balance [7].Synthetic fungicides have been used to control crop diseases and increase crop production for many years [8].Although synthetic fungicides reduce the loss of crops, excessive use of synthetic fungicides has resulted in pathogenicity resistance, pathogen resurgence, and pathogen extinction.Tey are also harmful to aquatic life, soil biodiversity, humans, and animals [9].Typical efects of these fungicides include soil embrittlement, decreased soil respiration, and decreased activity of several soil microorganisms [10].Synthetic fungicides reduce animal vitality, immunity, and the efcacy of animal reproduction [11].Synthetic fungicides have a detrimental efect on plant growth by reducing the biological function of soil microbes in producing specifc plant growth-promoting properties such as indole-3-acetic acid, nitrogen, and siderophores [12].Fungicide spills can enter water bodies and cause pollution and the destruction of aquatic life.Moreover, fungicide bioaccumulation in aquatic settings has been linked to the development of deadly diseases such as diabetes, rashes, kidney disease, and cancer in both animals and people as well as aquatic organisms [13].
Te EU and US have already outlawed some chemical pesticides due to their detrimental efects, and many conventional items have also been phased out due to concerns over their efects on the environment and human health [14].Te limited biodegradability and high persistence of synthetic pesticides are some major drawbacks [15].Contamination of the environment (water and soil), deleterious efects of fungicide residues on benefcial insects (earthworms, bees, and spiders), and detrimental efects on soil microbiota result in biodiversity loss and disturbances in the cycle of nutrients [16].In these situations, an integrated strategy provides a variety of management options that are sustainable and benign to the environment while still protecting human and environmental health.Biological control, which employs efective biocontrol agents to lessen pest damage, is a key component of a comprehensive strategy [17].Te primary idea is to employ microbes and their products to control the plant diseases without afecting features and elements of the ecological environment [18].In the era of sustainable agriculture, microbial biofungicides provide a solution for issues including fungicide resistance, environmental concerns, and human health issues [19].
Biofungicides are believed to be signifcantly more environmentally friendly than natural fungicides, yet this longterm option is vying for attention in the present synthetic pathogen market.Te key issues relating to technological difculties and long-term sustainability require an urgent need of resolution for more adaptability to popularize or promote the microbial biofungicides.Tese microbial biofungicides may take the form of microbial fungicides (microbial origin) [20], phytofungicides (plant origin) [13], and nano-biofungicides (nanoparticles manufactured from biological substances) [21].Microbial biofungicides are less expensive, more accessible, and long-lasting than synthetic fungicides, and also, they have no unwanted efects unlike synthetic fungicides [22].Phytofungicides, in addition to possessing a diversity of phytochemical components that give them diferent modes of action, are less hazardous to human health than synthetic fungicides [23].Nanobiofungicides outperform synthetic fungicides in terms of fungicidal action, controlled or targeted release, biodegradability, and good biocompatibility [21].Terefore, the major goal of this review is to assess the progress of microbial fungicides, their potential to replace chemical fungicides, their drawbacks, and to suggest a basis for future research that will be most helpful in managing phytopathogens.Te present review also discusses the efects of using synthetic fungicides to manage crop pathogens and to explore the role of microbial biofungicides in the management of plant diseases and to outline the current trends and status of utilizing these mechanisms.

Microbial Biofungicides
In the recent times, the utilization of microbial biofungicides is catching up the attention of many researchers because of their less toxic efect and lower cost.Microbial biofungicides are capable of inhibiting a wide variety of infections, and each active component is tailored specifcally to a pathogen that has to be controlled while being safe for other organisms (Figure 1) [13].Tese fungicides can be supplied as spores, living organisms, or dead organisms, and they are typically sprayed on crops in the same manner as chemical fungicides.Due to their target specifcity, repeatability, and ability to provide ongoing disease control, the active components that have potential benefts over chemical fungicides are higher because they are living organisms [24].Plant pathogens are suppressed by these microbial biofungicides because they prevent the growth of competing organisms, which in turn causes disease and produces specialised toxins [23].Microbial biofungicides are a sought-after component for integrated pathogen management because of their unique and varied range of features.Te main mechanisms of action exerted by microbial biofungicides are competition for space and nutrients, suppression via siderophores, hydrolytic enzymes, antibiosis, bioflm formation, and induction of plant resistance, while the most common fungicide modes of action are respiration inhibitors and sterol biosynthesis inhibitors [25,26] (Figure 2).
Microbial biofungicides normally have less adverse impacts on the environment, agricultural product producers, or consumers due to their target-specifc nature and generally safe ingredients [27].Also, when compared to chemical fungicides, their use results in lower greenhouse gas emissions [13].Moreover, a wide range of organisms can be used to produce microbial biofungicides, which can be sustainable and can tackle the issue of resistance.As diferent bacteria utilized as microbial biofungicides may require diferent storage conditions and because of difculties with in-depth scientifc research, ecological studies, and mass production methods, we have a limited understanding of microbial fungicides [28].Dealing with its storage and transit may be challenging for sellers, producers, marketers, and end users.Tus, more study is required to guarantee a long shelf life for microbial fungicides.
Many techniques are utilized to apply microbial biofungicides, including spray drying, spray chilling, lyophilization, coacervation, fuidized beds, extrusion, and electrospraying [29].Te two main types of microorganisms that are employed as microbial biofungicides are bacteria and fungi.Many fungi that live in the soil and cause diferent plant decays have been shown to be inhibited by bacterial genera including Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Yersinia [30], and Trichoderma spp.[31] and other bacteria.

Challenges of Microbial Biofungicides.
Even though they ofer promising futures in the management of plant pathogens, there are restrictions on the usage and efcacies of microbial biofungicides.Some of the challenges are addressed below.Many researchers have had great success using microbial biofungicides in the lab, particularly with noncommercial biological agents.Te move from the lab to the outdoors, however, has not been very successful.Te reports for the transfer of biofungicide from the laboratory to the feld have been difcult [32].Te challenge is a result of product development and formulation.To keep biocontrol agents (BCAs) alive, efective, and useable as intended, special formulation and storage techniques are required [33].
Biocontrol agents distinguish themselves from other types of control agents because they are living organisms.Due to their higher sensitivity to microclimate, they may also need special treatment during storage, shipment, and use in addition to their formulation requirements [34].Inoculum concentrations in microbial biofungicides, especially microbial biofungicides, present another problem in product formulation.Most tests revealed that various variables both in vivo and in vitro can vary.For instance, fower infection was not prevented by treating any of the BCAs at 10 6 conidia/mL at 15 °C, the typical temperature in the feld conditions.Nevertheless, 10 6 conidia/ml at 25 °C was successful in vitro.However, doubling the concentrations (to 10 8 conidia/ml) at 15 °C prevented fower infection [35].Similar fndings were made by Kim et al. [36], who found that greater antagonist doses (10 8 CFU/mL) improved tomato gray mold biocontrol.Te impact of the production process on the product's viability is another difculty in the creation of biological control products.It has been discovered that culture conditions, including conidial age and production temperature, have an impact on BCA germination and bioactivity.For instance, Trichoderma atroviride reached its maximum growth potential at 25 °C, but the maximum germination and bioactivity were found in conidia generated at 30 °C.Tis implies that cultural conditions have an impact on the formulation of biological controls.Several naturally occurring substances derived from plants and microorganisms are typically found in low concentrations and are challenging to purify on a large-scale basis [37].Te absence of standardized extraction techniques is one of the main problems with microbes and plant-based natural compounds.Te various extraction techniques are probably going to afect disease control goods diferently, which will ultimately afect how efective these medicines are.Agrochemical businesses create innovative chemicals and semisynthetic derivatives from these natural substances due to the difculty of creating natural commercial products.Natural substances are quite helpful, but their signifcance cannot be emphasized if processes are not standardized to provide consistent and repeatable results [38].

Developing a Product for a Pathogen that Afects Several
Hosts.Te difculty of biologically managing phytopathogens includes product development.Te optimum response to widespread and multihost infections is to provide a treatment that can be used on cropping systems and all hosts, such as most synthetic fungicides.It is challenging to create solutions that are efective across a variety of hosts and geographical locations due to the complexity of the virus and its varied interactions with biocontrol agents and animals.It is extremely challenging to develop a biocontrol product that can successfully survive and provide sustainable disease control under these varying settings given the nonspecialized nature of phytopathogens and their adaptability to varied hosts, environments, and to some extent, cropping systems [39].Finding biocontrol strains that are well-suited to hosts and farming systems might have implications for disease management.

Inconsistency on the Field.
Te use of this approach has been severely impeded by the unreliability of microbial biofungicides in the feld.Although microbial biofungicides have achieved considerable achievements in lab and greenhouse settings, several of them do not consistently control disease when used in the feld [40].Tere could be several reasons for the inconsistencies and decreased efcacy of microbial biofungicides that have been observed in realworld settings.

Efects of Environmental Variables on Microbial
Biofungicides.Te ability of biocontrol agents to adapt to diferent climatic and environmental settings, as well as evidence of considerable efciency against the target disease in a variety of scenarios, is an essential factor that contributes to their success in both greenhouse and feld conditions.Temperature, relative humidity, and UV rays are all elements that afect the lifespan of biocontrol agents [41].Tese circumstances ofer a diversifed microbiota with bacteria tailored to a particular environment.Microbes can manifest themselves diferently from year to year as well as at various sites.Tese infuences may be efectively managed in greenhouses to increase BCA survival.It still needs to be completely addressed how to keep greenhouse conditions that simultaneously suit the needs of both biocontrol agents and crops.BCAs and organic materials used in the feld are regularly exposed to a variety of temperatures and relative humidity.Te efcacy of biocontrol techniques is substantially hampered by the mismatch between disease environmental requirements and BCAs.For instance, Botrytis cinerea is active throughout a wide temperature range, with an optimal range of 15-20 °C [42], whereas the ideal temperature for most Trichoderma species usually employed to control B. cinerea is 25-30 °C [43] and 20-25 °C for Bacillus species [44].It is quite likely that B. cinerea will quickly colonize space at temperatures below 20 °C given its rapid colony proliferation and conidia generation under biological control with the BCA in the feld.Tis will have a considerable impact on how well these biocontrol agents work, especially those such as Ulocladium spp.and Trichoderma spp. that compete with one another for nutrients and space.Temperature and relative humidity can be efectively managed in greenhouses, but due to the variety of the indoor microclimate and the uniqueness of each greenhouse, BCAs are likely to have a varied level of efciency when compared to synthetic fungicides.Due to the stark diferences between 4 Scientifca BCAs and phytopathogens in terms of their environmental requirements, as well as the specifcs of greenhouses and geographic locations, it is extremely challenging to develop a biocontrol product that is applicable for greenhouse or feld application to various geographic locations.To overcome some of these problems with BCAs, a blend of several BCAs and an adequate high conidia concentration must be utilized.

Application Duration and Cross-Compatibility with
Other Products.Microbial biofungicides are only preventative and cannot "cure" already-infected crops [45].As a result, knowledge-intensive management is needed for the efective deployment of BCAs.Knowing the pathogen's biology can help in disease management by determining when and where biocontrol should be used.It was discovered that the best time to apply a biocontrol product depends on the timing of the application [46].To efectively manage disease, it is recommended to combine various biocontrol agents or use synthetic fungicides.Terefore, it is crucial to comprehend how microbial biofungicides interact with other elements and synthetic fungicides of the production process to develop practical disease control plans.

Synthetic Fungicides.
Fungicides, despite certain limitations, continue to play a crucial role in the management of plant diseases.In their history of more than a century, several fungicide classes have been introduced starting from multisite inorganic salts to organic compounds with protectant action and then to single-site systemic fungicides with curative activity [47].Historical perspectives on using chemicals for plant disease control include the application of efective methods for controlling plant diseases.Although IDM is recommended, synthetic fungicides remain the most important means of controlling the pathogen, and in some cases, the only option.Direct protection using synthetic chemicals is one of the basic principles of plant disease management.Fungicides, bactericides, and nematicides are applied through diferent methods such as foliar, slurry, drench, and paste.Fungicides can be classifed based on the mode of action, usage, and composition.Limitations of pesticide usage occur in plant disease management, due to health hazards and pesticide impact on the environment.Insurgence of fungicidal resistance in plant pathogens is also a signifcant threat.Te efcacy of chemical compounds is also afected by climate changes [48].
Recent trends in the development and use of synthetic chemicals in plant disease control consider a comparison between pesticides and alternative plant disease control methods, fungicide marketing policies, and procedures.Until recently, the use of synthetic fungicides for plant protection was thought to be safe.However, it was reported that its continuous use faces three major challenges, namely, (1) increased public concern about contamination of fruits and vegetables with residues from synthetic fungicides and its efect on human health [49], (2) increased resistance development in pathogen populations [50], and (3) environmental pollution [51].

Drawbacks of Synthetic Fungicides.
Many crops are lost to infections every year, but losses have decreased because of the development of synthetic fungicides.Today's synthetic fungicides do, however, come with drawbacks, including high acquisition and production costs, persistence in soil, pathogen resistance, health and environmental efects, fnancial loss to organic producers due to pathogen migration, destruction of infected crops, disposal of expired products, and disposal of leftover fungicides and conventional tank stocks, which can harm organic farms or the public [52] (Figure 2).Several fungicides do not decompose when applied to soil for agricultural purposes.As a result, they persist longer in the ecosystem and seep into groundwater and surface waters, causing pollution and biodiversity loss.Most fungicides that are sprayed on soil infuence species other than the ones they were designed to kill.Furthermore, another method by which fungicides have been linked to having a negative efect on soil nutrients is by chelating some important metal ions, which leaves them unavailable to plants [53].Fungicides can also hinder photosynthesis, reproduction, and seed formation in plants [54].
Humans can consume the leftovers of fungal spores that afect edible plants directly, or they can be utilized to make fodder [55].Tis may be relevant if fungicides are applied during harvest [56].Tree fungicides, glyphosate, malathion, and alpha-cypermethrin, were found to reduce the activity and population of fungus, actinomycetes, and bacteria in soil [57].Animal biodiversity and genetic conservation are reduced because of all the harmful efects of synthetic fungicides.Moreover, it afects soil microbial activity.Tis alters soil biodiversity and health.Humans may contract several ailments if they consume milk, meat, vegetables, edible plants, fruits, or vegetables with high levels of harmful pesticide residues [58].According to Onwujiogu et al. [59], Bambara groundnut contains fungicides that are over the WHO's recommended maximum residue levels (MRLs) and may be damaging to the health of people, especially if they are consumed by children.Moreover, testing of the elimination of fungicide levels in the three fruits showed that the pesticide level in watermelon was above the WHO/FAO residue limit, which is dangerous to consumer health [59].Fungicides are also employed to safeguard harvested food crops, including fruits, vegetables, and grains, as well as those utilized for uses aside from those for which they were intended.For instance, using calcium carbide to ripen fruit puts human health at risk.When calcium carbide, which contains calcium phosphide and calcium arsenite, combines with water to create phosphide and arsine, it causes fatigue, headaches, nausea, vomiting, and dizziness [60].Similarly, when tested on albino rats, the pathogen ethephon which has the ability to accelerate the ripening of vegetables, fruits, and grains showed hepatocyte characteristics [61].Aside from these conditions, biomagnifcation of fungi through exposure to skin pores (during spraying), postharvest storage, food (such as fsh), water, and inhalation results in conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, birth defects, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, eczema, eye irritation, hormonal disorders, hypertension, kidney disease, liver dysfunction, neurological degeneration, Parkinson's disease, Scientifca and rashes [62,63].Moreover, high fungicide levels have been linked to a 25-30% rise in psychological health issues and a 50% rise in relentless leukemia, lymphoma, brain cancer, and other cancers.

Can Microbial Biofungicides Fully Substitute Synthetic
Fungicides in the Current Scenario?Te need for novel fungicide alternatives that are better for the environment and human health and could lead to the production of safer food is currently the subject of intense scientifc inquiry.Despite its many shortcomings and growing concerns from farmers and consumers worldwide, alternative means of controlling the disease are being pushed forward [13,64].Tere is no complete replacement for chemical disinfectants with microbial biodisinfectants.First, microbial biofungicides themselves have many drawbacks for full onsite application and, moreover, are available in markets where chemical fungicides are still dominant and used in most agricultural systems.Yet, it might be difcult and expensive to fnd commercial biofungicide products on the open market.Especially in developing countries, it is almost impossible to completely replace the use of synthetic fungicides and eliminate them from the market because there is no good technology for research, commercialization, and business.Moreover, given that microbial biofungicides are not abundant on the market and have their own limitations, withdrawing synthetic fungicides from the market is not a good advice for the fungicide industry.An alternative is to use microbial biofungicides to reduce size and dose to supplement synthetic fungicides.
Te applicability and the matter of commercialization have both been the subject of numerous studies.Moreover, microbial biofungicides experience issues with quality control and have a limited shelf life [65].Te recommended dosages and the assessment of potential new pathogen species that may be resistant to the current microbial biofungicides are other issues that many farmers worry about [66].To combat plant diseases, direct-acting microbial antagonists have reportedly been coupled with synthetic fungicides.Te combination of fungicides and compatible microbial biofungicides in integrated disease management (IDM) strategies not only protects seeds and seedlings from soil and seed-derived inoculum [67] but also controls the disease.It can also improve the efectiveness and provide better protection.Combinations of microbial biofungicides and fungicides may provide disease control such as increased doses of fungicides.Combining microbial biofungicides with synthetic chemicals eliminates the possibility of developing resistance and reduces the use of fungicides.For instance, combining conventional fungicides against preharvest infections with fungal antagonists improves disease management.Since some Trichoderma species are naturally resistant to fungicides, they can be combined in a single mixture.In a feld trial of dry bean production, T. virens and thiophanate-methyl were discovered together in Fusarium solani and Fusarium oxysporum [68].Similar results were recorded for the treatment of Rosellinia necatrix-induced avocado white rot, where the application of Trichoderma species combined with a low dose of fuazinam proved to be more efective than either treatment alone [69].Moreover, a low dose of the broad-spectrum fungicide tolclofos-methyl combined with Trichoderma spp. was superior to the fungicide alone despite Trichoderma spp.not being efective against Acremonium strictum and F. oxysporum in an in vitro experiment [70].A parallel study found that thiabendazole mixed with Cryptococcus laurentii at 10% of the recommended dose had the longest-lasting and strongest efects on controlling B. cinerea, an important postharvest disease, on stored apples [71].Te combination proved even more effective and lasted longer than the biocontrol yeast alone in controlling a thiabendazole-resistant isolate of Botrytis cinerea on apples that had been harvested and treated with newer fungicides.More efective than the treatment alone was a combination of the biocontrol yeasts (C.laurentii or Rhodotorula kratochvilovae) with a small dose of either cyprodinil or boscalid [72].Like fungal antagonists, the main advantage of bacterial antagonists is enhanced in disease management against soilborne diseases.For instance, tomato disease treatment with Bacillus megaterium against F. oxysporum and a small dose of the fungicide carbendazim in plant packs should improve the situation [73].Full disease control was achieved by the combination, even outperforming the administration of the fungicide at a dose that was ten times greater.Comparable results were obtained in the same setup by employing a combination of Pseudomonas fuorescens and a tenfold lower dose of benomyl, which reduced the disease as much as using the fungicide at its full dose alone [74].Bacillus subtilis combined with azoxystrobin produced the maximum yield on zucchini and the best disease control against powdery mildew (induced by Podosphaera xanthii) in multiple greenhouse experiments [75].A list of microbial biofungicides used as biological control agents for fungal plant diseases is indicated in Table 1.

Current Perspectives and Future Research Directions.
Microbial biofungicides are a great alternative to chemical pesticides for farmers who need to protect their plant crops.However, there is very little demand for and supply of microbial biofungicides, which discourages both producers and users.If we look at the current research status from collected databases, top priorities are refected more for academic purposes than for product development.Te majority of papers focus on the screening tests, the methodology of evaluation for the biological activity, and the biochemical mechanisms of action.Before becoming an economically feasible alternative to chemical control, biopesticides must satisfy several requirements which must be considered as a whole an efective microbial strain showing a reliable efectiveness must be selected.A technology providing high-quality biomass and adequate formulation must be developed.A knowledge of the ecological requirements for survival, colonization, and/or biological control activity is required.Te toxicological confdence of the user safety and the ecotoxicological safety must be controlled.Te production and availability of microbial Scientifca biofungicides can also be improved by providing grants or capital to researchers, business owners, producers, and marketers.Microbial biofungicides continue to face numerous difculties in their manufacture, application, and development.Terefore, further investigation into the mechanisms that increase the stability and shelf life of microbial biofungicides will greatly contribute to boosting their efcacy.In addition, there are still issues that need to be resolved regarding standardization and feld-scale microbial performance tests.To enable the commercialization of microbial biofungicides, additional production, delivery, and formulation research is needed.Te mixing of the public and private sectors could advance the development, study, and distribution of environmentally friendly fungicides in underdeveloped countries.In addition, more funding for commercial investors, public-funded programs, and biofungicide companies is required.Creating strict regulatory frameworks to keep microbial biofungicides accessible at reasonable costs in developing nations is a crucial issue.

Concluding Remarks
Synthetic fungicides are primarily used by farmers all over the world to manage infections in their agricultural ecology.However, since the fact that these fungicides pose a hazardous efect on humans and the environment, it became essential to design a suitable pathogen control strategy, such as the application of microbial biofungicides.Tese microbial biofungicides are eco-friendly and safer and play an important role in modern agriculture.Microbial biopesticides give eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic pesticides, yet they confront various difculties in their production, formulation, and application.It appears to be that microbial biopesticides will have a more extensive use in the future as their application techniques enhance as less expensive inert materials are recognized for diferent formulations.Microbial biofungicides ofer a more balanced plant protection product application, and in the future formulation, products should have more balance between production cost and efciency.Development related to the formulation type would possibly shift from a single microorganism-based product to a microbial consortiumbased formulation.Signifcant advancement has been made in the production of new formulation products and application methods; however, there is still much work to be performed.For further research to improve production and application techniques, scientists and researchers are likely to provide safe and efective products for plant disease management.Moreover, the advancement of methodologies and multidisciplinary research will be the focus of future studies to produce high-quality, secure, and cost-efcient plant protection solutions.

Figure 1 :
Figure 1: Microorganisms as an alternative to conventional fungicides.

6 Scientifca Table 1 :
Microbial biofungicides used as biocontrol agents for fungal plant disease.