Nutritional Composition and Antinutritional Factors of Five Wild Edible Fruits Grown in the Mekdela District, South of Wollo, Ethiopia

This study was carried out to determine the mineral content and nutritional properties of five wild fruits Rhus vulgaris, Rosa abyssinica, Rhus natalensis, Euclea racemosa, and Ficus sur. The proximate composition parameters (moisture, ash, crude fiber, crude fat, and crude protein) and antinutritional factors were evaluated using methods of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists and elemental analysis using the atomic absorption spectroscopy technique. Among the five wild edible fruit species, Rhus vulgaris had the highest carbohydrate content (83.3 ± 0.28 g/100 g) and a high total energy (344.5 ± 2.21 kcal/100 g). Euclea racemosa was found to have the maximum ash content (12.8 ± 0.37 g/100 g), protein content (3.22 ± 0.01 g/100 g), and moisture (16.24 ± 0.003 g/100 g), respectively. Rhus natalensis showed the highest fiber content (9.54 ± 0.003 g/100 g). Mineral analysis showed that local wild fruits contained a considerable amount of minerals. The calcium concentration ranged from 99.51 mg/100 g in Euclea racemosa to 160.12 mg/100 g in Ficus sur. Potassium concentration varied from 54.34 mg/100 g in Euclea racemosa to 234 mg/100 g in Rhus vulgaris. Iron ranges from 21.4 mg/100 g in Rosa abyssinica to 41 mg/100 g in Rhus natalensis, and zinc ranges from 2.3 mg/100 g in Rhus vulgaris to 4.2 mg/100 g in Ficus sur. A high saponin content (2.12 mg/100 g) and a low tannin content (0.23 mg/100 g) were obtained in Rosa abyssinica. The phytate content (1.52 mg/100 g) and the oxalate content (0.9 mg/100 g) were high in Rhus natalensis. In conclusion, the present study shows that wild fruits can be used as food supplementation in food in a safe area.


Introduction
Many kinds of edible wild fruits are eaten as a source of nutrition in poor nations.Some people regularly gather edible fruits and other plants from natural environments to meet their appropriate nutritional needs, due to factors such as rapid population growth, lack of arable land, and high prices of readily available staples [1].In addition to providing humans with vital nutrients such as carbohydrates, dietary fber, and protein, these wild fruits also include minerals and phytochemicals that are good for your health [2].Due to their high fber and antioxidant content, recent studies have revealed that wild fruits can treat a variety of illnesses, including diabetes, cardiovascular problems, infammations, and disorders of the digestive and urinary tract [3].
Antioxidants is another essential element that reduces the risk of developing chronic diseases by eliminating free radicals that have formed in diferent tissues and shielding those tissues from oxidative damage [2].To improve dietary diversity, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations is actively advocating for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity for agriculture and nutrition [4].However, the main problem that prevents some of these wild fruits from being fully used is the presence of certain antinutrients, which can decrease mineral bioavailability and digestibility, particularly protein and carbohydrates [5].Ethiopia, along with many other African nations, is extremely fortunate to have an abundance of fruit-bearing species that produce domesticated and wild fruits throughout the year [6].Unfortunately, nutritional defciencies remain a widespread and worrying problem in the nation, particularly afecting young people and expectant mothers [7].
Much attention has recently been paid to the evaluation of diferent wild edible fruits because they are an essential part of the human diet, providing the body with energy, protein, and essential vitamins and minerals [8].It was noted in most of these correspondences that the nutritional value of foods made from unusual plants may occasionally be better than that of ordinary vegetables.Terefore, the creation of a national food composition database is urged globally [9].Furthermore, nutritional data are needed to create processing parameters for the target items that are appropriate for low-income consumers [10].
Unfortunately, Ethiopia lacks its own national food database.Te objective of this investigation was to assess the nutritional qualities and antinutritional factors of fve wild fruits that are grown in Ethiopia, namely, Rhus vulgaris, Rosa abyssinica, Rhus natalensis, Euclea racemosa, and Ficus sur; the current study was carried out.Tese fruits are well-liked in Ethiopia and are a staple of the diet, especially in rural areas.

Methods and Materials
2.1.Plant Collection and Preparation.Te Mekdela district, which is located at latitude 11 °25′ 25″N and longitude 39 °10′ 30″E, is where the fruit samples were taken from the wild forest.Te district is located between 600 and 3700 meters above sea level.Te district experiences 495 to 1168 mm of annual rainfall, and its average minimum and maximum temperatures range from 18 to 22 °C, respectively.Te specimens were identifed by taxonomists from Mekdela Amba University.A voucher specimen was placed in the herbarium of the Department of Biology of Mekdela Amba University.Te fruit samples were cleaned with distilled water to remove dirt, gently dried with a laboratory paper towel, cut into small pieces, and then dried (Figure 1).Te dried materials were ground to a fne powder using an automatic motor blender, which was kept at 4 °C in airtight glass containers until additional examination.All chemicals and reagents used in this investigation were of analytical grade and were brought from Addis Ababa.Wild edible fruits were dried for further analysis, and the fruit plant species Rhus vulgaris, Rosa abyssinica, Rhus natalensis, and Euclea racemosa fruits were dried by the solar drying while Ficus sur was dried by room drying (Table 1).

Proximate Composition and Antinutritional Factor Analysis
2.2.1.Moisture Content.Te moisture content of the fruit sample was determined according to the AOAC [11] standards.For each sample, 5.0 g of four was frst placed in a crucible and put in a drying oven at 105 °C temperature, till a constant weight of the dried sample was attained.Te moisture content (%M) was calculated using the following formula: where W 1 is the weight of the empty crucible, W 2 is the weight of the sample and crucible, and W 3 is the weight of the dry sample and the crucible.

Crude Fat.
For crude fat content determination, the Soxhlet extraction method was performed [12].Two grams of moisture-free sample were introduced into a fat-free thimble and then placed in the extraction chamber.Hexane was added to the extraction equipment as a solvent due to its low boiling temperature, ease of oil recovery, and excellent solubilizing ability.After extraction, the solvent fask with fat and the thimble with the fat-free sample were removed from the apparatus.Te solvent was evaporated after extraction and cooled in a desiccator.Te crude fat was then calculated using the following formula: fat % � weight of the flask with crude fat − weight of the flask weight of the sample × 100. (2)

Determination of Crude Protein.
Te crude protein content of the powdered fruit sample was determined by the micro-Kjeldahl method [13].About, 5 g of fruit four was frst placed in a digestion tube along with 15 ml H 2 SO 4 (98% pure) and 3 digestion tablets as a catalyst.Te digestion was continued for 3-4 hours until a clear green color was obtained.After which, a 100 ml conical fask containing 20 ml of 40% boric acid and 3 drops of Tashiro's indicator was placed under the distillation apparatus with its outlet tubes implanted into the conical fask.Te digest was washed away with distilled water by the addition of 3 drops of phenolphthalein and 20 ml of 40% (w/v) NaOH solution, and distillation was continued till about 50 ml of distillate was trapped into the boric acid plus indicator solution changed from red to light grey, displaying that all the ammonia liberated had been trapped.A receiving fask was titrated with 0.1 mM HCl to a brown color.Ten, after titration, the % of nitrogen was determined as follows: where V 2 is the volume (ml) of HCl required to titrate the sample, V 1 is the volume (ml) of acid required to titrate the 2 Te Scientifc World Journal blank, M is the molarity of acid, N is the normality of HCl, 6.25 is the protein nitrogen conversion factor, and 1.4 is the atomic mass of nitrogen.

Crude Fiber.
Te crude fber content was determined using AOAC methods [14].First, 2 grams of moisture and fat-free fruit four sample was digested with H 2 SO 4 (1.25%) for 30 minutes followed by washing with distilled water and hydrolyzed for additional 30 minutes with 1.25% NaOH.Te sample was washed with hot water and acetone and dried at 105 °C for 1 hour till a constant weight was achieved and cooled in a desiccator and weighed.Te sample remainder was ashed in a mufe furnace held at 550 °C for 30 minutes and then cooled in a desiccator and weighed again.Te crude fber content was calculated using the following formula: where W 2 is the weight of (crucible + sample) after drying, W 1 is the weight of (crucible + sample) after ashing, and W is the weight of the sample.

Determination of Ash.
Ash was determined using the standard AOAC methodology [15].Two grams of each sample were added to porcelain crucibles and weighed and burned in a furnace for 30 minutes at 550 °C.After being ashed, the samples were removed and allowed to cool in a desiccator before being weighed and then the percentage of ash is calculated as follows: where W 1 is the weight of the crucible, W 2 is the weight of the sample and the crucible, and W 3 is the weight of the ash and the crucible.

Determination of Antiutritional Factors
2.3.1.Oxalate Content.Te amount of oxalate in the plant was determined using the modifed titration method [16].
Te material (1 g) had been ground and 75 ml of 3 mol/L of H 2 SO 4 were added to a conical fask, which was then stirred for an hour using a magnetic stirrer.After fltering, 25 ml of the fltrate was collected and heated between 80 °and 90 °C.Te temperature of this fltrate was consistently maintained above 70 °C.After reaching the endpoint, which was shown by a light pink color that persisted for 15 seconds, the hot aliquot was continuously titrated with 0.05 mol/L of KMnO 4 .Calculating the oxalate content involved, assume that 1 ml of 0.05 mol/L of KMnO 4 is equal to 2.2 mg of oxalate.2.3.2.Phytate Content.Phytic acid was found in the manner mentioned [17].After weighing 2 grams of the sample into a fask and adding 100 ml of 2% HCl, the mixture was left to stand for 3 hours before being fltered.An indicator solution containing 0.3% ammonium thiocyanate was added to 5 ml of a separate 250 ml conical fask that contained 25 ml of fltrate.53.5 ml of distilled water was added to achieve the appropriate level of acidity.Subsequently, this was titrated with a standard iron III chloride solution for fve minutes until a brownish-yellow color permeated the mixture (0.001 95 g of iron per ml).Te formula for phytic acid was found to be phytic acid(%) � titer value 0.001 95 × 1.19 × 100.(6)

Determination of Saponins.
As indicated in [18], the quantity of saponins was calculated.Essentially, 5 g of the powdered plant sample was combined with 50 ml of 20% ethanol, shaken for 30 minutes, and then heated for 4 hours at 55 °C in a water bath.200 ml of 20% aqueous ethanol was used to extract the residue once more after fltering the mixture.Te fltrates were combined and diluted to 40 ml in a 90 °C water bath.Te concentrate was moved to a new funnel and vigorously agitated after 20 ml of diethyl ether was added.While the top layer, the ether layer, was being removed, the bottom layer, the aqueous layer, was held in a beaker.With a new funnel, the retained layer was added once more.After the separated layer was separated into an alternative funnel, 60 ml of nbutanol was added and stirred vigorously.Te bottom layer was discarded, and the top layer known as butanol extract was kept.Te butanol layer was washed twice with 10 ml of 5% aqueous sodium chloride.Te remaining solution was collected, brought to a boil in a water bath to evaporate, and then dried in a drying oven at 40 °C to a consistent weight.Te following formula was used to determine the saponin content: % saponin content � weight of the residue × 100 weight of the original sample .(7)

Determination of Mineral Contents.
A sample of two grams of dry fruit four was burned in a mufe furnace for three hours at 550 °c after being charred on a hotplate until the smoking stopped.Weighed and dissolved in 3 ml of concentrated nitric acid, the resultant white ash was then diluted up to 25 ml with deionized water.Using atomic absorption spectroscopy grade standards, standard stock solutions of Ca, K, Zn, and Fe were prepared.Te minerals Ca, Zn, and Fe were determined using an acetylene fame at wavelengths of 422.7, 213.9, and 248.3 nm, respectively, using an atomic absorption spectroscopy method [19].For every mineral, a diferent set of electrode lights was utilized.Te equipment was run for standard solutions of each mineral before and during determination to check that it was working properly.Using the same reagents and methodology as the samples and standards, blank solutions were made in order to evaluate any potential contamination.Atomic emission spectrometry operating at wavelengths of 766.5 nm was used to determine the potassium concentration.
where C 2 is the concentration of the sample in ppm (mg/L), C 1 is the concentration of the blank in ppm (mg/L), V is the volume (ml) of the extract, and W is the weight (g) of the samples.

Data Analysis.
Te results of the nutritional composition and nutritional factor analyses of the ants were examined using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques, presented as the mean ± SE of three measurements, and were determined statistically signifcant using SPSS version 20.

Results and Discussion
3.1.Proximate Composition.Table 2 shows the moisture content, ash, fat, protein, fber, carbohydrate, and energy value of fve wild edible plants.A considerable number of these proximate compositions were present in some edible wild plants.Among the studied edible plants, Euclea racemosa fruits contained high moisture content (16.24 ± 0.003 g/100) and ash content (12.8 ± 0.37 g/100) while it was observed to be low in terms of carbohydrate and energy composition.Tis result is comparatively higher than that of an earlier scenario in Ethiopia [7].Te higher moisture content indicates shorter storability if left unprocessed within a reasonable amount of time.It may be economically feasible to develop food products using the relatively high dry matter content of fruits, but it may not require a signifcant amount of raw material to produce a quantifable amount of total solids [20].Te average carbohydrate content ranged from 65.54 ± 0.02 g/100 g in Euclea racemosa to 83.3 ± 0.28 g/100 g in Rhus vulgaris, which corresponds to approximately the recommended daily allowance (RDA) of carbohydrates (130-210 g/day) for all age groups [21].Tis indicates that fruits have a high potential to provide sufcient amounts of the body's main energy source.Te highest and lowest protein contents of the fruits were recorded, with Rhus natalensis (0.98 ± 0.003 g/100 g) and Euclea racemosa (3.22 ± 0.01 g/100 g), respectively.Te protein content of Euclea racemosa in this investigation is signifcantly higher than the 1% reported by [2], which was carried out in Northeast India.Depending on the age group, these fruits can contribute between 16% and 133% of the required protein due to their inherent protein values [22].
Te ash content, which ranged from 2.41 ± 0.01 g/100 g in Rhus vulgaris to 12.8 ± 0.37 g/100 g in Euclea racemosa, indicates its mineral strength and, if consumed, can greatly decrease some micronutrient defciencies that have a negative impact on human health.Tis fnding is similar to the fruits of Ziziphus nummularia and Ziziphus mauritiana that 4 Te Scientifc World Journal are carried out in India [23].Compared to other studies reported by [24] in Ghana, the fat content ranged from 0.12 ± 0.003 g/100 g for Ficus sur to 0.9 ± 0.00 g/100 g for Rosa abyssinica, which was very low.Te low fat content could indicate that fruits are crucial in reducing cardiovascular disease.Te crude fber content ranged from 1.53 ± 0.03 g/100 g in Euclea racemosa to 9.54 ± 0.003 g/100 g in the Rhus natalensis fruits.Tis corresponds to approximately 5-22% of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) of fber for humans, which is 19-38 g [25].Tis quantity of fber may have a signifcant impact on the way humans digest food and manage constipation.Rhus natalensis had an energy content of 274.5 ± 0.07 kcal/100 g, while Rhus vulgaris had 344.5 ± 2.21 kcal/100 g.Tis indicates that when consumed, fruits could provide about 11 to 19% of daily energy needs (2071 to 3152 kcal) [26].

Mineral Composition.
Te presence of trace minerals (Fe and Zn) and macrominerals (K and Ca) was investigated in terms of dry matter, as shown in Figure 2. In Euclea  Te Scientifc World Journal 6 Te Scientifc World Journal racemosa, the calcium content ranged from 99.51 mg/100 g to 160.12 mg/100 g in the sur.Calcium must be included in human diets because it is essential for the development of strong bones and teeth, the control of muscle contractions, and the transmission of nerve impulses throughout the body [27].Rhus vulgaris had the highest potassium concentration of 234 mg/100 g, while Euclea racemosa had the lowest concentration of 54.34 mg/100 g.As a result, there was a statistically signifcant variation in potassium concentration between fruits that was statistically signifcant (p > 0.05).Potassium is an essential mineral that helps the body to maintain its balance of osmotic and bodily fuids and to regulate nerve signals and muscle contractions [28].Furthermore, an appreciable amount of zinc was found from 2.3 mg/100 g of Rhus vulgaris to 4.2 mg/100 g of Ficus sur.Rhus natalensis had a higher iron concentration (41 mg/ 100 g).Zinc is signifcantly associated with protein synthesis, catalytic activity of several enzymes, and rapid growth and development during childhood, adolescence, and wound healing, while iron is extremely important for oxygen transport capacity and for controlling anemia and its associated consequences [29].

Antinutrient
Composition.Rhus natalensis had a higher phytate content (1.52 mg/100 g), although Euclea racemosa had the lowest content (0.33 mg/100 g) as shown in Figure 3. Phytate decreases the digestibility of amino acids and forms complexes with phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc to obstruct their absorption.As a result, the body can easily become unavailable to these minerals [30].Te oxalate values ranged from 0.52 mg/100 g in Rhus vulgaris to 0.92 mg/ 100 g in Rhus natalensis.Renal calcium absorption is known to be inhibited by oxalate, particularly at concentrations of approximately 4-5 g/100 g [31].However, the values found in this investigation are signifcantly lower than the values that are considered hazardous.Tis implies that eating fruits may not cause any problems with the absorption of minerals by the body [32].Te saponin content ranged between 0.76 mg/100 g in Euclea racemosa and 2.12 mg/100 g in Rosa abyssinica.When saponins are present in large amounts, they can impart their distinctive bitter taste to food and cause them to foam in aqueous solution [33].Although saponins rupture red blood cells and induce nausea and vomiting, they help people with hypocholesterolemia [34].
Te tannin content ranged from 0.23 mg/100 g in Rhus natalensis to 0.53 mg/100 g in Rhus natalensis, which is less than that reported by [35] for similar forest fruits.Due to its astringent properties, tannin has been demonstrated to decrease food palatability, impede the activity of certain enzymes, and combine with proteins to decrease their solubility and digestibility.However, these fruits may not present any major health risks due to their low tannin content [36].

Comparison of Determined and Reported Nutritional
Values of Wild Edible Fruits.Many national and international researchers have documented the nutritional makeup of various wild edible fruit species.Te most frequently reported nutritional parameters are ash, moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fber, crude carbs, and energy.Table 3 compares the values obtained in this investigation with those reported in the literature.It is evident from the table that there were notable diferences in the nutritional makeup of the same parameters reported by various researchers.Te present investigation found that the moisture content of Rosa abyssinica fruit (13.24 ± 0.003 g/100 g) was comparable to that of Ziziphus spina-christi (13.10%), which was described by the authors in [37] as underutilized wild edible fruits in the East Wollega zone, Western Ethiopia.Te crude fber content in this study was signifcantly lower than the previous fnding [38] which recorded 20.46% in Mimusops kummel fruit in the Amhara region of Ethiopia.Researchers may have used diferent methodologies for sample preparation and analysis, which could account for the disparity.Te fat content of the current study was almost exactly the same as the values for naturalized wild edible fruit species in Ethiopia reported by Mokria et al. [39].Te fruit of Rhus vulgaris has the highest carbohydrate content (83.3 ± 0.28 g/100 g).Furthermore, this fnding was also in agreement with a study conducted by Mahapatra et al. [40], who reported 12.43% in Carissa spinarum fruit.Genetic and environmental factors could be the cause of this variation.Te energy value in Rhus natalensis fruit (274.5 ± 0.07 kcal/ 100 g) was closely related to Yimer et al. [41], who reported (275.0 ± 5.9 kcal/100 g) the total energy value in Solanum nigrum fruit.

Limitation of the Study
Te toxicity, antioxidant activity, fatty acid composition, and phytochemical analyses for each of the fve wild edible fruit species were not complete due to a lack of funding and a well-equipped laboratory for this work.

. Conclusions
According to their recommended proximate and mineral contribution to daily nutrient requirements in humans, Rhus vulgaris, Rosa abyssinica, Rhus natalensis, Euclea racemosa, and Ficus sur are nutritionally sound.Fruits may not present signifcant health risks due to their relatively low levels of antinutrients.Terefore, it is clear from the study that the nutritional and antinutritional factors of wild edible fruits, despite their abundance and lack of public acceptance and use in the Ethiopian community, could be used as a weapon against hunger and certain nutrient defciencies.To guarantee widespread consumption and antioxidant properties, it would be highly helpful to process seasonal and perishable fruits into unique and complete food products, such as drinks, baked goods, or cookies.

Table 1 :
Duration of time for wild edible fruits drying.

Table 2 :
Proximate composition of fve wild edible fruits.Note.Values are the averages of three separate composite sample analyses (based on DW) that were performed independently.Te superscripts that vary along the column indicate signifcant diferences at p < 0.05.

Table 3 :
Comparison of observed nutritional compositions of wild edible fruit samples with reported values.
ND: not determined.